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WO2025056009A1 - Methods for treating cancer - Google Patents

Methods for treating cancer Download PDF

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Publication number
WO2025056009A1
WO2025056009A1 PCT/CN2024/118654 CN2024118654W WO2025056009A1 WO 2025056009 A1 WO2025056009 A1 WO 2025056009A1 CN 2024118654 W CN2024118654 W CN 2024118654W WO 2025056009 A1 WO2025056009 A1 WO 2025056009A1
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hydrogen
group
cancer
alkyl
formula
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French (fr)
Inventor
Ming Cheung CHOW
Tak Hang CHAN
Gege SUN
Lai King Wong
Jiahua CUI
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Hong Kong Polytechnic University HKPU
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Hong Kong Polytechnic University HKPU
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    • AHUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61PSPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
    • A61P35/00Antineoplastic agents
    • AHUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61KPREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K31/00Medicinal preparations containing organic active ingredients
    • A61K31/33Heterocyclic compounds
    • A61K31/395Heterocyclic compounds having nitrogen as a ring hetero atom, e.g. guanethidine or rifamycins
    • A61K31/41Heterocyclic compounds having nitrogen as a ring hetero atom, e.g. guanethidine or rifamycins having five-membered rings with two or more ring hetero atoms, at least one of which being nitrogen, e.g. tetrazole
    • A61K31/41921,2,3-Triazoles
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07DHETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
    • C07D405/00Heterocyclic compounds containing both one or more hetero rings having oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, and one or more rings having nitrogen as the only ring hetero atom
    • C07D405/14Heterocyclic compounds containing both one or more hetero rings having oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, and one or more rings having nitrogen as the only ring hetero atom containing three or more hetero rings

Definitions

  • This disclosure relates to a method of sensitizing cancer cells to an anticancer agent and methods of treating cancer.
  • Multidrug resistance is a major impediment to effective cancer treatment.
  • Substantial research has been directed to developing improved methods for treating multidrug resistant cancers.
  • effective treatments remain elusive, at the time of filing.
  • Cancer stem cells are believed to contribute to chemotherapy resistance and relapse.
  • a new class of triazole-linked flavonoid dimers exemplified by Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 , were identified as being effective in reversing drug resistance in cancer, such as CD44 + CD24 -/low MCF-7 breast CSCs, with an effective concentration of 32 nM.
  • Co-administration of Ac15 (Az2) 2 and doxorubicin (DOX) significantly inhibited the growth rate of tumour in animal model compared to the DOX alone group.
  • photoactivatable derivatives were designed and synthesized and used them to identify peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) as the target protein of Ac13Az9.
  • PRDX1 is a reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger that protects cells against oxidative stress by detoxifying dangerous oxidants including hydrogen peroxide and superoxide.
  • CSCs overexpressed PRDX1 and ectopic expression of PRDX1 conferred DOX resistance to MCF-7 cells.
  • Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 can reverse DOX resistance by increasing the DOX-induced ROS damage. This indicated that the dimeric structure was crucial.
  • the results described herein suggest that Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 disrupt the monomer dimer homeostasis and lead to ROS build up in CSCs, which could result in the reversal of drug resistance. This work provided new insights into the mechanisms of cancer cell resistance and provides a novel strategy in reversing drug resistance in CSCs.
  • synthetic flavonoid dimer described herein can cause cellular ROS level upregulation and reverse the chemoresistance of breast CSCs to anti-cancer drugs such as DOX.
  • a method of reducing drug resistance of a cancer in a subject in need thereof to an anticancer drug comprising: administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound to the subject, wherein the cancer overexpresses peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) and the compound has Formula 1:
  • A is a bond or a moiety of Formula 2:
  • n is a whole number selected from 1-3;
  • n is a whole number selected from 1-3;
  • p is a whole number selected from 0-4;
  • R 1 is a moiety of Formula 3 or Formula 4:
  • R 2 is a moiety of Formula 5:
  • R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, - (CH 2 ) p PhR 9 , or -C (O) PhR 9 ;
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 9 , and R 10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2 , -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2 , -S (O) 2 R, -S (O) 2 N (R) 2 , -N (R) S (O) 2 R, -C
  • R 8 is hydrogen or a moiety of Formula 6:
  • X is O or H 2 ;
  • R 11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , -N (R) C (O) OR, or -N 3 ;
  • R for each instance is independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or aralkyl.
  • n 1 and n is 2; or m is 2 and n is 2.
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 9 , and R 10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2 , -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -CH 2 OCH 2 C ⁇ CH, -OCH 2 C ⁇ CH, -N (CH 2 C ⁇ CH) 2 , -C (O) OCH 2 C ⁇ CH, -N 3 , -CH 2 N 3 , and
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 9 , and R 10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2 , -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R; and R 11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , or -N (R) C (O) OR.
  • the compound has Formula 7:
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2 , -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R;
  • R 11 is -C (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , or -N (R) C (O) OR.
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, and -N (R) 2 ; and R 11 is -C (O) OR.
  • the compound has Formula 8:
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 9 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2 , -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R.
  • the compound is selected from the group consisting of:
  • the compound is selected from the group consisting of:
  • the anticancer drug is selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
  • the method further comprises co-administering an anticancer drug is selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
  • an anticancer drug is selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
  • the cancer is head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer, esophageal cancer, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, liver cancer, myeloma, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and bladder cancer.
  • the cancer is breast cancer.
  • a method of treating cancer in a subject in need thereof comprising: co-administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound and a therapeutically effective amount of an anticancer drug to the subject, wherein the cancer overexpresses peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) and the compound has Formula 1:
  • A is a bond or a moiety of Formula 2:
  • n is a whole number selected from 1-3;
  • n is a whole number selected from 1-3;
  • p is a whole number selected from 0-4;
  • R 1 is a moiety of Formula 3 or Formula 4:
  • R 2 is a moiety of Formula 5:
  • R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, - (CH 2 ) p PhR 9 , or -C (O) PhR 9 ;
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 9 , and R 10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2 , -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2 , -S (O) 2 R, -S (O) 2 N (R) 2 , and -N (R) S (O) 2 R;
  • R 8 hydrogen or a moiety of Formula 6:
  • X is O or H 2 ;
  • R 11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , or -N (R) C (O) OR; and R for each instance is independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or aralkyl.
  • n 1 and n is 2; or m is 2 and n is 2.
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 9 , and R 10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2 , -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R; and R 11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , or -N (R) C (O) OR.
  • the compound has Formula 7:
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2 , -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R;
  • R 11 is -C (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , or -N (R) C (O) OR.
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, and -N (R) 2 ; and R 11 is -C (O) OR.
  • the compound has Formula 8:
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 9 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2 , -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R.
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 9 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, and -N (R) 2 .
  • the compound is selected from the group consisting of:
  • the anticancer drug is selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
  • the cancer is breast cancer, lung cancer, colorectal cancer, ovarian cancer, gastric cancer, prostate cancer, pancreatic cancer and liver cancer.
  • the cancer is breast cancer.
  • the anticancer drug is doxorubicin.
  • Flavonoid dimers Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 can reverse the resistance of multiple anticancer drugs in CSCs.
  • Figure 3 Combination of DOX and flavonoid dimer suppressed the growth and mammosphere formation ability of MCF7-CSCs.
  • A IC 50 of DOX ( ⁇ M) was determined in the presence of synthetic flavonoid dimer Ac13Az9, Ac15 (Az2) 2 and their flavonoid monomers at 1 ⁇ M after 3 days incubation in the breast CSCs and MCF-7 (parental cell line of CSCs) .
  • FIG. 4 In vivo characterization of Ac15 (Az2) 2 .
  • A Plasma concentration of Ac15 (Az2) 2 against time.
  • Female Balb/c mice were i.v. injected with 20 mg/kg or i.p. injected with 20, 40, and 80 mg/kg of Ac15 (Az2) 2 .
  • animals were sacrificed to collect the blood and the plasma concentration of modulator was analyzed by UPLC-MS/MS.
  • Two dash lines at 30 ng/mL and 200 ng/mL indicate the corresponding EC 50 of Ac15 (Az2) 2 for reversing DOX resistance in CSC (32 nM) and MCF-7 (188 nM) , respectively. There were 3-4 mice at each time point.
  • FIG. 5 In vivo efficacy of combination of DOX and Ac15 (Az2) 2 in treating breast cancer MCF-7 xenograft.
  • A Balb/c nude mice were subcutaneously xenografted with MCF-7 after transplantation of estradiol pallet. After the tumours reaching 150 mm 3 , the mice were randomized and treated with (1) Ac15 (Az2) 2 solvent, (2) DOX 1 mg/kg i.v. (3) Ac15 (Az2) 2 80 mg/kg i.p. and (4) co-treatment: Ac15 (Az2) 2 80 mg/kg i.p. was injected 2 hr prior to DOX 1 mg/kg i.v. All groups were administrated once every 2 days for 10 injections.
  • Estimated tumour volume (mm 3 ) was calculated as 1/2 x length x width 2 in mm and normalized to the tumour volume on the first day of treatment. The values were presented as mean ⁇ SEM.
  • B At the end of MCF-7 xenograft efficacy study (day 20) , all tumours were dissected.
  • D Body weight changes in MCF-7 xenograft Balb/c nude mice treated with Ac15 (Az2) 2 combined with DOX were recorded. Body weight was recorded once every 2 days. Changes in weight were expressed in percentage and plotted against days. Body weight loss larger than 15%indicates treatment-induced toxicity.
  • F Weight of organs in each group was recorded on day 20 after the sacrifice of the Balb/c nude mice. Upon autopsy, vital organs (heart, liver, lung, spleen and kidney) were weighed. They were compared individually to the PBS control group to see if there were any treatment-related adverse effects.
  • FIG. 6 Identification of Ac13Az9 binding targets using photocrosslinker
  • A The localization of Ac13Az9 and its potential targets in CSCs was studied by fluorescence staining. CSCs were incubated with either DMSO control or Ac13Az9 crosslinker 5 (XC5) , after fixation, the target-Ac13Az9 conjugate was clicked with Alexa 647-alkyne under the catalysation of copper and TBTA. The signal was visualized with a confocal microscope (A) and super-resolution microscope (B) . (i) DAPI staining of nuclei (ii) distribution of Alexa-crosslinker conjugate and their protein targets and (iii) superimposition of blue and red fluorescence.
  • FIG. 15 ROS depletion by GSH pre-incubation abolished modulating activity of flavonoid dimers.
  • CSCs were pre-incubated with or without 5 mM GSH overnight before adding of treatments: 4 ⁇ M DOX, 1 ⁇ M Ac13Az9, 1 ⁇ M Ac15 (Az2) 2 , 4 ⁇ M DOX + 1 ⁇ M Ac13Az9 and 4 ⁇ M DOX + 1 ⁇ M Ac15 (Az2) 2 . After 3 hours of incubation, cells were treated with 10 ⁇ M of DCF-DA and collected for ROS analysis.
  • Figure 16 The expression of p53, p-p53 and p21 in CSCs.
  • the protein level of p53, p21 and phosphorylated p53 was determined in MCF-7 and CSCs under the treatments of DMSO control, 0.3 ⁇ M DOX, 2 ⁇ M Ac13Az9, 2 ⁇ M Ac15 (Az2) 2 , 0.3 ⁇ M DOX + 2 ⁇ M Ac13Az9 and 0.3 ⁇ M DOX + 2 ⁇ M Ac15 (Az2) 2 .
  • Beta-actin was used as the loading control.
  • Figure 17 shows Table 1 presenting EC 50 of flavonoid dimers in reversing DOX resistance in CSCs.
  • the EC 50 of a total of 61 flavonoid dimers were determined for their activities in reversing DOX resistance in CSCs.
  • EC 50 is defined as the concentration of modulators at which can reduce the IC 50 of DOX by 50%.
  • the EC 50 value is presented as mean ⁇ standard error of mean (SEM) .
  • N 1-4 independent experiments.
  • Figure 18 shows Table 2 presenting the chemical structure and EC 50 of Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 crosslinkers in CSCs.
  • the photocrosslinking functional group used was either a phenyl azide or a diazirine which form a covalent bond to the target proteins under UV activation.
  • the click chemistry function group was either an azide or an alkyne for pull-down and identification.
  • N 3-4 independent experiments (except for compounds XC3, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 which has an EC 50 >1000 nM) .
  • Figure 19 shows Table 3 presenting the putative binding proteins of Ac13Az9 identified.
  • emPAI exponentially modified protein abundance index.
  • PAI is defined as the number of observed peptides divided by the number of observable peptides per protein.
  • emPAI is used for absolute quantitation, it equals to 10 PAI minus one.
  • Figure 20 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac13Az9 XC1.
  • Figure 22 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac13Az9 XC3.
  • Figure 23 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac13Az9 XC4.
  • Figure 24 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac13Az9 XC5.
  • Figure 25 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac13Az9 XC6.
  • Figure 26 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac15 (Az2) 2 XC8 and XC9.
  • Patent law e.g., they can mean “includes” , “included” , “including” , and the like; and that terms such as “consisting essentially of” and “consists essentially of” have the meaning ascribed to them in U.S. Patent law, e.g., they allow for elements not explicitly recited, but exclude elements that are found in the prior art or that affect a basic or novel characteristic of the present invention.
  • treatment refers to reducing or ameliorating a disorder/disease and/or symptoms associated therewith. It will be appreciated, although not precluded, treating a disorder or condition does not require that the disorder, condition, or symptoms associated therewith be completely eliminated. In certain embodiments, treatment includes prevention of a disorder or condition, and/or symptoms associated therewith.
  • prevention or “prevent” as used herein refers to any action that inhibits or at least delays the development of a disorder, condition, or symptoms associated therewith.
  • Prevention can include primary, secondary and tertiary prevention levels, wherein: a) primary prevention avoids the development of a disease; b) secondary prevention activities are aimed at early disease treatment, thereby increasing opportunities for interventions to prevent progression of the disease and emergence of symptoms; and c) tertiary prevention reduces the negative impact of an already established disease by restoring function and reducing disease-related complications.
  • subject refers to an animal, typically a mammal or a human, that will be or has been the object of treatment, observation, and/or experiment.
  • subject refers to an animal, typically a mammal or a human, that will be or has been the object of treatment, observation, and/or experiment.
  • the term is used in conjunction with administration of a compound described herein, then the subject has been the object of treatment, observation, and/or administration of the compound described herein.
  • terapéuticaally effective amount means that amount of the compound or pharmaceutical agent that elicits a biological and/or medicinal response in a cell culture, tissue system, subject, animal, or human that is being sought by a researcher, veterinarian, clinician, or physician, which includes alleviation of the symptoms of the disease, condition, or disorder being treated.
  • co-administration and “co-administering” refer to both concurrent administration (administration of two or more therapeutic agents at the same time) and time varied administration (administration of one or more therapeutic agents at a time different from that of the administration of an additional therapeutic agent or agents) , as long as the therapeutic agents are present in the patient to some extent at the same time.
  • alkyl refers to a straight-chain or branched saturated hydrocarbon group.
  • alkyl groups include methyl-, ethyl-, propyl (e.g., n-propyl and isopropyl) , butyl (e.g., n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl) , pentyl groups (e.g., 1-methylbutyl, 2-methylbutyl, iso-pentyl, tert-pentyl, 1, 2-dimethylpropyl, neopentyl, and 1-ethylpropyl) , hexyl groups, and the like.
  • an alkyl group can have 1 to 40 carbon atoms (i.e., C1-40 alkyl group) , for example, 1-30 carbon atoms (i.e., C1-30 alkyl group) .
  • an alkyl group can have 1 to 6 carbon atoms, and can be referred to as a "lower alkyl group. " Examples of lower alkyl groups include methyl, ethyl, propyl (e.g., n-propyl and isopropyl) , and butyl groups (e.g., n-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl) .
  • alkyl groups can be optionally substituted as described herein.
  • An alkyl group is generally not substituted with another alkyl group, an alkenyl group, or an alkynyl group.
  • alkenyl refers to a straight-chain or branched alkyl group having one or more carbon-carbon double bonds.
  • alkenyl groups include ethenyl, propenyl, butenyl, pentenyl, hexenyl, butadienyl, pentadienyl, hexadienyl groups, and the like.
  • the one or more carbon-carbon double bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butene) or terminal (such as in 1-butene) .
  • an alkenyl group can have 2 to 40 carbon atoms (i.e., C2-40 alkenyl group) , for example, 2 to 20 carbon atoms (i.e., C2-20 alkenyl group) .
  • alkenyl groups can be substituted as described herein.
  • An alkenyl group is generally not substituted with another alkenyl group, an alkyl group, or an alkynyl group.
  • cycloalkyl by itself or as part of another substituent means, unless otherwise stated, a monocyclic hydrocarbon having between 3-12 carbon atoms in the ring system and includes hydrogen, straight chain, branched chain, and/or cyclic substituents.
  • exemplary cycloalkyls include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, and the like.
  • a "fused ring” or a “fused ring moiety” refers to a polycyclic ring system having at least two rings where at least one of the rings is aromatic and such aromatic ring (carbocyclic or heterocyclic) has a bond in common with at least one other ring that can be aromatic or non-aromatic, and carbocyclic or heterocyclic.
  • aromatic ring or heterocyclic
  • These polycyclic ring systems can be highly p-conjugated and optionally substituted as described herein.
  • heteroatom refers to an atom of any element other than carbon or hydrogen and includes, for example, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, sulfur, phosphorus, and selenium.
  • heterocycloalkyl as used herein includes reference to a saturated heterocyclic moiety having 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 ring carbon atoms and 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur.
  • the group may be a polycyclic ring system but more often is monocyclic.
  • This term includes reference to groups such as azetidinyl, pyrrolidinyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, piperidinyl, oxiranyl, pyrazolidinyl, imidazolyl, indolizidinyl, piperazinyl, thiazolidinyl, morpholinyl, thiomorpholinyl, quinolizidinyl and the like.
  • aryl refers to an aromatic monocyclic hydrocarbon ring system or a polycyclic ring system in which two or more aromatic hydrocarbon rings are fused (i.e., having a bond in common with) together or at least one aromatic monocyclic hydrocarbon ring is fused to one or more cycloalkyl and/or cycloheteroalkyl rings.
  • An aryl group can have 6 to 24 carbon atoms in its ring system (e.g., C6-24 aryl group) , which can include multiple fused rings.
  • a polycyclic aryl group can have 8 to 24 carbon atoms. Any suitable ring position of the aryl group can be covalently linked to the defined chemical structure.
  • aryl groups having only aromatic carbocyclic ring include phenyl, 1-naphthyl (bicyclic) , 2-naphthyl (bicyclic) , anthracenyl (tricyclic) , phenanthrenyl (tricyclic) , pentacenyl (pentacyclic) , and like groups.
  • polycyclic ring systems in which at least one aromatic carbocyclic ring is fused to one or more cycloalkyl and/or cycloheteroalkyl rings include, among others, benzo derivatives of cyclopentane (i.e., an indanyl group, which is a 5, 6-bicyclic cycloalkyl/aromatic ring system) , cyclohexane (i.e., a tetrahydronaphthyl group, which is a 6, 6-bicyclic cycloalkyl/aromatic ring system) , imidazoline (i.e., a benzimidazolinyl group, which is a 5, 6-bicyclic cycloheteroalkyl/aromatic ring system) , and pyran (i.e., a chromenyl group, which is a 6, 6-bicyclic cycloheteroalkyl/aromatic ring system) .
  • aryl groups include benzodioxanyl, benzodioxolyl, chromanyl, indolinyl groups, and the like.
  • aryl groups can be optionally substituted.
  • an aryl group can have one or more halogen substituents, and can be referred to as a "haloaryl" group.
  • Perhaloaryl groups i.e., aryl groups where all of the hydrogen atoms are replaced with halogen atoms (e.g., -C 6 F 5 ) , are included within the definition of "haloaryl.
  • an aryl group is substituted with another aryl group and can be referred to as a biaryl group. Each of the aryl groups in the biaryl group can be optionally substituted.
  • aralkyl refers to an alkyl group substituted with an aryl group.
  • heteroaryl refers to an aromatic monocyclic ring system containing at least one ring heteroatom selected from oxygen (O) , nitrogen (N) , sulfur (S) , silicon (Si) , and selenium (Se) or a polycyclic ring system where at least one of the rings present in the ring system is aromatic and contains at least one ring heteroatom.
  • Polycyclic heteroaryl groups include those having two or more heteroaryl rings fused together, as well as those having at least one monocyclic heteroaryl ring fused to one or more aromatic carbocyclic rings, non-aromatic carbocyclic rings, and/or non-aromatic cycloheteroalkyl rings.
  • a heteroaryl group as a whole, can have, for example, 5 to 24 ring atoms and contain 1-5 ring heteroatoms (i.e., 5-20 membered heteroaryl group) .
  • the heteroaryl group can be attached to the defined chemical structure at any heteroatom or carbon atom that results in a stable structure. Generally, heteroaryl rings do not contain O-O, S-S, or S-O bonds. However, one or more N or S atoms in a heteroaryl group can be oxidized (e.g., pyridine N-oxide thiophene S-oxide, thiophene S, S-dioxide) .
  • Examples of heteroaryl groups include, for example, the 5-or 6-membered monocyclic and 5-6 bicyclic ring systems shown below:
  • T is O, S, NH, N-alkyl, N-aryl, N- (arylalkyl) (e.g., N-benzyl) , SiH 2 , SiH (alkyl) , Si (alkyl) 2 , SiH (arylalkyl) , Si (arylalkyl) 2 , or Si (alkyl) (arylalkyl) .
  • N-alkyl N-aryl
  • N- (arylalkyl) e.g., N-benzyl
  • SiH 2 SiH (alkyl) , Si (alkyl) 2 , SiH (arylalkyl) , Si (arylalkyl) 2 , or Si (alkyl) (arylalkyl) .
  • heteroaryl rings examples include pyrrolyl, furyl, thienyl, pyridyl, pyrimidyl, pyridazinyl, pyrazinyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, isothiazolyl, thiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, isoxazolyl, oxazolyl, oxadiazolyl, indolyl, isoindolyl, benzofuryl, benzothienyl, quinolyl, 2-methylquinolyl, isoquinolyl, quinoxalyl, quinazolyl, benzotriazolyl, benzimidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzisothiazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzoxadiazolyl, benzoxazolyl, cinnolinyl, lH-indazolyl, 2H-indazo
  • heteroaryl groups include 4, 5, 6, 7-tetrahydroindolyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, benzothienopyridinyl, benzofuropyridinyl groups, and the like.
  • heteroaryl groups can be substituted as described herein.
  • heteroaryl groups can be optionally substituted.
  • optionally substituted refers to a chemical group, such as alkyl, cycloalkyl aryl, and the like, wherein one or more hydrogen may be replaced with a substituent as described herein, for example, halogen, azide, alkyl, aralkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, hydroxyl, alkoxyl, amino, nitro, sulfhydryl, imino, amido, phosphonate, phosphinate, carbonyl, carboxyl, silyl, ether, alkylthio, sulfonyl, sulfonamido, ketone, aldehyde, ester, heterocyclyl, aromatic or heteroaromatic moieties, -CF 3 , -CN, or the like
  • carrier is art-recognized and refers to an aromatic or non-aromatic ring in which each atom of the ring is carbon.
  • nitro is art-recognized and refers to -NO 2 ;
  • halogen is art-recognized and refers to -F, -Cl, -Br or -I;
  • sulfhydryl is art-recognized and refers to -SH;
  • hydroxyl means -OH;
  • sulfonyl and “sulfone” is art-recognized and refers to -SO 2 -.
  • Halide designates the corresponding anion of the halogens.
  • the term "pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers to those salts which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of subjects without undue toxicity, irritation, allergic response and the like, and are commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio.
  • Pharmaceutically acceptable salts are well known in the art. For example, Berge et al. describes pharmaceutically acceptable salts in detail in J. Pharmaceutical Sciences (1977) 66: 1-19.
  • Pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds provided herein include those derived from suitable inorganic and organic acids and bases.
  • Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable, nontoxic acid addition salts are salts of an amino group formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid and perchloric acid or with organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid or malonic acid or by using other methods used in the art such as ion exchange.
  • inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid and perchloric acid
  • organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid or malonic acid or by using other methods used in the art such as ion exchange.
  • salts include adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, besylate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, formate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate, oxalate, palmitate, pamoate,
  • organic acids from which salts can be derived include, for example, acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid, salicylic acid, and the like.
  • Pharmaceutically acceptable salts derived from appropriate bases include alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, ammonium and N + (C 1-4 alkyl) 4 salts.
  • Representative alkali or alkaline earth metal salts include sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, aluminum, and the like.
  • Further pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, when appropriate, non-toxic ammonium, quaternary ammonium, and amine cations formed using counterions, such as halide, hydroxide, carboxylate, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, lower alkyl sulfonate, and aryl sulfonate.
  • Organic bases from which salts can be derived include, for example, primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, substituted amines including naturally occurring substituted amines, cyclic amines, basic ion exchange resins, and the like, such as isopropylamine, trimethylamine, diethylamine, triethylamine, tripropylamine, and ethanolamine.
  • the pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salt is chosen from ammonium, potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts.
  • a method of reducing drug resistance of a cancer in a subject in need thereof to an anticancer drug comprising: administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound to the subject, wherein the cancer overexpresses peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) and the compound has Formula 1:
  • A is a bond or a moiety of Formula 2:
  • R 11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , -N (R) C (O) OR, or -N 3 ;
  • p is 0-4, 1-4, 2-4, 3-4, 0-3, 0-2, 0-1, or 1-2. In certain embodiments, p is 1.
  • R for each instance is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 5 alkyl, C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkyl, and C 1 -C 2 alkyl.
  • the compound has Formula 8:
  • A is a bond or a moiety of Formula 2:
  • n is a whole number selected from 1-3;
  • p is a whole number selected from 0-4;
  • R 2 is a moiety of Formula 5:
  • R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, - (CH 2 ) p PhR 9 , or -C (O) PhR 9 ;
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 9 , and R 10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2 , -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2 , -S (O) 2 R, -S (O) 2 N (R) 2 , and -N (R) S (O) 2 R;
  • X is O or H 2 ;
  • R 11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , or -N (R) C (O) OR; and R for each instance is independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or aralkyl.
  • n is 1-2 or 2-3. In certain embodiments, m is 1-2.
  • n is 1-2 or 2-3. In certain embodiments, m is 2.
  • p is 0-4, 1-4, 2-4, 3-4, 0-3, 0-2, 0-1, or 1-2. In certain embodiments, p is 1.
  • R 1 can be a moiety selected from the group consisting of:
  • R 1 is N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-aminoethyl-N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-aminoethyl-N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-aminoethyl-N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-aminoethyl-N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-aminoethyl
  • R 2 can be a moiety selected from the group consisting of:
  • R 2 is
  • R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, In certain embodiments, R 3 is benzyl.
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 9 , and R 10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2 , -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2 , -S (O) 2 R, -S (O) 2 N (R) 2 , and -N (R) S (O) 2
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 9 , and R 10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2 , -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2 , -S (O) 2 R, -S (O) 2 N (R) 2 , and -N (R) S (O) 2
  • X can be O or H 2 as illustrated below:
  • R 11 can be hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2 , or -N (R) C (O) OR.
  • R 11 is hydrogen, -C (O) OC 1 -C 6 alkyl, -C (O) OC 1 -C 5 alkyl, -C (O) OC 1 -C 4 alkyl, -C (O) OC 1 -C 3 alkyl, or -C (O) OC 1 -C 2 alkyl.
  • R 11 is hydrogen or -C (O) OMe.
  • R for each instance can independently be hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or aralkyl.
  • R for each instance is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C 1 -C 12 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 3 -C 8 cycloalkyl, C 3 -C 6 cycloalkyl, 3-6 membered heterocycloalkyl comprising 1, 2, 3 heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, and N, C 6 -C 10 aryl, C 3 -C 8 heteroaryl comprising 1, 2, 3 heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, and N, or C 6 -C 10 ar (C 1 -C 2 ) alkyl.
  • R for each instance is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 5 alkyl, C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkyl, and C 1 -C 2 alkyl.
  • the compound has Formula 7:
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 10 , and R 11 is independently as defined in any embodiment or combination of embodiments described herein.
  • the compound has Formula 8:
  • each of R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 9 is independently as defined in any embodiment or combination of embodiments described herein.
  • the compound is selected from the group consisting of:
  • the anticancer drug can be selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
  • the cancer is head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer such as triple-negative breast cancer, esophageal cancer, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, liver cancer, myeloma, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and bladder cancer.
  • the cancer is breast cancer.
  • the compounds described herein can be administered according to therapeutic protocols well known in the art. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the administration of the compounds described herein and the anticancer drug can be varied depending on the cancer being treated and the known effects of the anticancer drug on that cancer. Also, in accordance with the knowledge of the skilled clinician, the therapeutic protocols (e.g., dosage amounts and times of administration) can be varied in view of the observed effects of the administered therapeutic agents (i.e., anticancer drug) on the patient, and in view of the observed responses of the cancer to the administered therapeutic agents.
  • the administered therapeutic agents i.e., anticancer drug
  • compounds described herein and the anticancer drug do not have to be administered in the same pharmaceutical composition, and may, because of different physical and chemical characteristics, have to be administered by different routes.
  • compounds described herein may be administered intravenously to generate and maintain good blood levels, while the anticancer drug may be administered orally.
  • the determination of the mode of administration and the advisability of administration, where possible, in the same pharmaceutical composition, is well within the knowledge of the skilled clinician.
  • the initial administration can be made according to established protocols known in the art, and then, based upon the observed effects, the dosage, modes of administration and times of administration can be modified by the skilled clinician.
  • anticancer drug will depend upon the diagnosis of the attending physicians and their judgment of the condition of the patient and the appropriate treatment protocol.
  • a compound described and anticancer drug may be administered concurrently (e.g., simultaneously, essentially simultaneously or within the same treatment protocol) or sequentially, depending upon the nature of the cancer, the condition of the patient, and the actual choice of anticancer drug to be administered in conjunction (i.e., within a single treatment protocol) with a compound described herein.
  • the optimum order of administration of the compound described herein and the anticancer drug may be different for different cancers.
  • the compound described herein may be administered first followed by the administration of the anticancer drug; and in other situations the anticancer drug may be administered first followed by the administration of a compound described herein.
  • This alternate administration may be repeated during a single treatment protocol.
  • the determination of the order of administration, and the number of repetitions of administration of each therapeutic agent during a treatment protocol is well within the knowledge of the skilled physician after evaluation of the disease being treated and the condition of the patient.
  • the anticancer drug may be administered first and then the treatment continued with the administration of a compound described herein followed, where determined advantageous, by the administration of the anticancer drug, and so on until the treatment protocol is complete.
  • the practicing physician can modify each protocol for the administration of a component (compound described herein and the anticancer drug) of the treatment according to the individual patient's needs, as the treatment proceeds.
  • MCF-7 cells were cultured in Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10%heat inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS) , 100 U/mL Penicillin and 100 ⁇ g/mL Streptomycin.
  • CSCs were produced by sorting a CD24 low /CD44 high subpopulation in MCF-7.
  • CSCs were cultured in MammoCult TM Human Basal medium (STEMCELL technologies) supplemented with 10%MammoCult TM Proliferation Supplements (STEMCELL technologies) , 4 ⁇ g/mL Heparin, 0.48 ⁇ g/mL Hydrocortisone, 100 U/mL Penicillin and 100 ⁇ g/mL Streptomycin. Cells were maintained and cultured in a humidified 37°C incubator with 5%CO 2 .
  • DMEM Modified Eagle Medium
  • FBS fetal bovine serum
  • 25,000 CSCs were seeded in each well in a 96-well plate in 100 ⁇ L complete MammoCult medium containing increasing concentration of DOX from 0 to 150 ⁇ M (1: 3 dilution) , and increasing concentration of modulator from 0 to 1 ⁇ M (1: 3.5 dilution) , three replicas were included for each concentration.
  • Cells were incubated in a humidified 37°C incubator with 5%CO 2 for 3 days. After incubation, cell viability was measured with Promega CellTiter 96 Aqueous assay according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Cells were added with 10 ⁇ L MTS/PMS solution and incubated at 37°C for 90 min. The absorbance at 492 nm was recorded with a microplate absorbance reader.
  • the IC 50 was determined by Prism software using nonlinear regression dose-response cure analysis.
  • Ac15 (Az2) 2 was prepared at 5 mg/mL in 10% (v/v) NMP, 10% (v/v) Cremophor EL and 80%saline. Mice were fasted for 15 hours prior to receiving different doses of Ac15 (Az2) 2 (20, 40 or 80 mg/kg) by i.p. injection or 20 mg/kg by i.v. injection.
  • blood samples were collected in a heparinized Eppendorf tube via cardiac puncture. Blood samples were centrifuged at 14000 rpm for 10 min for the separation of blood plasma. Plasma sample collected was transferred to a new Eppendorf tube and stored at -20°C until analysis.
  • Concentration of Ac15 (Az2) 2 in plasma was determined by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) .
  • 20 ⁇ L of internal standard [Ac15 (Az8) 2 , 500 ng/mL] was added following by adding of 400 ⁇ L acetonitrile (ACN) .
  • ACN acetonitrile
  • the sample was vigorously vortexed for 30 seconds and centrifuged at 14000 rpm for 10 min. Supernatant was collected and filtered with a 0.22 ⁇ m pore size nylon filter. Sample were transferred into glass vials with micro-volume inserts.
  • the gradient elution program was: 90%A/10%B at 0 min and 1 min, 15%A/85%B at 5 min and 7 min, 90%A/10%B at 9 min and 10 min.
  • Effluent was detected by a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer.
  • the precursor ion of Ac15 (Az2) 2 (m/z 487.8) and Ac15 (Az8) 2 (m/z607.9) were allowed to pass from the first quadrupole (Q1) to the collision cell (Q2) .
  • the precursor ions were fragmented under a collision energy of 35 eV and 15eV, respectively.
  • mice bearing MCF-7 xenograft were treated with different doses of Ac15 (Az2) 2 (40 or 80 mg/kg) by i.p. injection.
  • tumour samples were collected after the sacrifice of the mice. Tumour samples can be stored at -20°C until analysis.
  • tumours were weighed and homogenized with 3 times volume of water to give a tumour homogenate.
  • 20 ⁇ L of internal standard [Ac15 (Az8) 2 , 500 ng/mL) was added into each sample. After adding 400 ⁇ L ACN, samples were vigorously vortexed for 30 seconds and centrifuged at 14000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was analyzed after filtration. Concentration of Ac15 (Az2) 2 in tumours was determined by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) .
  • Ac15 (Az2) 2 was prepared at 5 mg/mL in 10% (v/v) NMP, 10% (v/v) Cremophor EL and 80%saline.
  • mice received 10 injections from day 0 to day 18 (q. o. d. x10) . From day 0, all mice were monitored for toxicity symptoms including body weight loss, loss of appetite, slowness in activity and treatment-related mortality. A weight loss of more than 15%would be considered as a result of treatment-related toxicity. After the last treatment, animals were monitored for 2 more days to observe any toxicity response.
  • Balb/c nude mice aged from 6 to 8 weeks old and weight from 14 to 20 grams were purchased and maintained in a germ-free environment with an unlimited supply of sterilized food and water with a 12-hour light/dark cycle.
  • a 10 mm 3 MCF-7 tumour piece originated from a tumour bulk was transplanted subcutaneously into Balb/c nude mouse after transplantation of a 17 ⁇ -estradiol tablet (0.72 mg, 60-day release, Cat No. SE-121, Innovative Research of America, Sarasota, FL) under general anesthesia of ketamine (100 mg/kg) and xylazine (10 mg/kg) .
  • CSCs were pre-treated with DOX and Ac13Az9 for 24 hours. After treatment, cells were collected, washed and resuspended with PBS following by UV irradiation on ice at 365 nm for 10 mins. Cells were then collected and transferred to a 24-well plate containing a poly-L-lysine coated coverslip in each well. The plate was spined at 2500 rpm for 15 min at room temperature to ensure CSCs are attached to the coverslips. After fixing cells with 4%paraformaldehyde for 15 min at room temperature and permeabilization with 100%cold methanol for 20 min at -20°C, cells were washed with PBS and put into the click chemistry reaction.
  • the click chemistry reaction contains 5 ⁇ M Alexa 647 fluorophore, 100 mM Tris, 2 mM CuSO 4 , 2 mM TBTA/THPTA, 10 mM ascorbic acid and 50%DMSO. After incubating in the dark for 1hr at room temperature, cells were washed and stained with 5 ⁇ g/mL DAPI and read with a fluorescent microscope.
  • Fresh cell lysate from 2x10 7 cells was harvested by incubate CSCs with NP-40 lysis buffer (1%NP-40/50 mM HEPES/PI) for 10 min on ice. Supernatant was collected after centrifugation at 14000 rpm for 10 min at 4°C. Ac13Az9 crosslinkers were added to the CSC lysate and incubated at 37°C for 30 mins. After incubation, the lysate crosslinker mixture was irradiated at 365 nm for 10min on ice.
  • UV-irradiated cells lysate was incubated with 200 ⁇ M biotin azide (or 20 ⁇ M Alexa 647 Azide) , 1%SDS, 10 mM ascorbic, 200 ⁇ M TBTA and 2 mM CuSO 4 for 2 hours at room temperature.
  • proteins clicked with Alexa 647 Azide can be separated on SDS-PAGE (10%) and viewed with Azure c600 for fluorescence detection.
  • Proteins clicked with biotin azide can be separated on SDS-PAGE (10%) , and transferred onto a PVDF membrane. After incubation of Streptavidin-HRP overnight at 4°C with shaking, signals could be developed using enhanced chemiluminescence reagent.
  • cells lysate coupled to biotin azide were precipitated by the addition of 4 volumes of ice-cold acetone and placed at -20°C overnight. After centrifugation for 10 min at 4°C, the pellet was washed with ice-cold methanol three times. The protein pellet was air-dried for 10 min and then dissolved in 1%SDS with PBS by vortexing or sonication. The solution was then diluted with lysis buffer to a final concentration of 0.1%SDS and added to Streptavidin Sepharose. The solution was rotated overnight at 4°C for the capture of biotinylated proteins. The Sepharose beads were then washed thoroughly three times with 2 M urea in TBS and eluted by incubating with 2%SDS at 95°C for 5 min.
  • SDS-PAGE gels were fixed for 30 min in 10%Acetic acid and 40%Methanol after separation. Gels were then washed thoroughly with distilled water, sensitized in 800 mM sodium acetate and 13 mM sodium thiosulphate in 30%methanol for 30mins. Gels were washed three times with distilled water to remove excess sensitizers. After stained with 0.25%silver nitrate for 20 min, gels were rinsed with water quickly and developed with 2.5%sodium carbonate with 0.04%formaldehyde. The reaction was stopped with 50 mM EDTA solution.
  • PRDX1 overexpression plasmids were purchased from Addgene (pFRT/TO/HIS/FLAG/HA-PRDX1) .
  • Mammalian expressed PRDX1 was produced by transient transfection into HEK293FT or MCF-7 cell line.
  • HEK293FT and MCF-7 cells were grown in a 10cm dish and transfected at approximately 80%confluency with 7.5 ⁇ g PRDX1 plasmid and Lipofectamin 3000 (ThermoFisher) as per the manufacturer’s instructions. Transfected cells were harvested 6 days after transfection.
  • CSCs were firstly trypsinized and incubated with the designated concentration of DOX, Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 separately or in combination for indicated time. Then cells were added with 10 ⁇ M DCFDA at 37°C for 1 hr in the dark. After that, cells were collected and resuspended in PBS and subjected to C6 flow cytometer (BD Accuri) analysis. DCF-DA was detected in the FL-1 channel.
  • DCF-DA oxidation-sensitive cell-permeable fluorescent probe dye 2’7’-dichlorofluorescein diacetate
  • GSH was measured using a GSH/GSSG quantification assay kit (Beyotime, China) according to the manufacturer’s manual.
  • the sulfhydryl group of GSH reacts with 5, 5’-dithiobis-2-nitrobenzoic acid (DTNB) and forms a yellow color 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid (TNB) which can be detected at the absorbance at 412 nm.
  • the rate of TNB production is proportional to the concentration of glutathione.
  • Total glutathione was measured by first reducing GSSG to 2 GSH by glutathione reductase.
  • the production of TNB reflects the total amount of both GSH and GSSG.
  • sample was firstly treated with GSH removing reagent.
  • the produced TNB reflects the GSSG remained. From above, the proportion GSH and GSSG can be calculated.
  • NADPH was measured using a NADP + /NADPH quantification assay kit (Beyotime, China) according to the manufacturer’s manual. NADPH reduces WST-8 and produces yellow color formazan which can be detected at absorbance at 450 nm.
  • NADP + was firstly reduced to NADPH by incubating with glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) following by incubation with WST-8.
  • G6P glucose-6-phosphate
  • G6PDH glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
  • the membrane was incubated with goat anti-mouse IgG (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) or goat anti-rabbit IgG (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) conjugated with HRP in TBST in a dilution ratio of 1: 3000 at room temperature for 1.5 hours with gentle shaking.
  • the membrane was covered by SuperSignal TM West Pico Chemiluminescent Substrate (ThermoFisher) and the chemiluminescent signal was detected by Azure c600.
  • PRDX1 Abcam, #ab41906
  • PRDX2 Abcam, #ab133481
  • P53 Santa Cruz, #sc-126
  • P21 Santa Cruz, #sc-6246
  • phospho-P53 Cell signaling, #9287
  • ⁇ -actin Santa Cruz, #sc-477778

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Abstract

A method of reducing drug resistance of a cancer to an anticancer drug a subject in need thereof, the method including: administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound to the subject, wherein the cancer overexpresses peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) and the compound is a triazole linked flavonoid dimer. The anticancer drug can be doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.

Description

METHODS FOR TREATING CANCER
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
The present application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/582,539, filed on September 14, 2023, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.
TECHNICAL FIELD
This disclosure relates to a method of sensitizing cancer cells to an anticancer agent and methods of treating cancer.
BACKGROUND
Multidrug resistance is a major impediment to effective cancer treatment. Substantial research has been directed to developing improved methods for treating multidrug resistant cancers. However, effective treatments remain elusive, at the time of filing.
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are believed to contribute to chemotherapy resistance and relapse.
There thus exists a need to develop improved methods for reducing the drug resistance of cancers as well improved methods for treating drug resistant cancers.
SUMMARY
A new class of triazole-linked flavonoid dimers, exemplified by Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2, were identified as being effective in reversing drug resistance in cancer, such as CD44+CD24-/low MCF-7 breast CSCs, with an effective concentration of 32 nM. Co-administration of Ac15 (Az2) 2 and doxorubicin (DOX) significantly inhibited the growth rate of tumour in animal model compared to the DOX alone group. To investigate the mechanism of action of the triazole-linked flavonoid dimers described herein, photoactivatable derivatives were designed and synthesized and used them to identify peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) as the target protein of Ac13Az9. PRDX1 is a reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger that protects cells against oxidative stress by detoxifying dangerous oxidants including hydrogen peroxide and superoxide. CSCs overexpressed PRDX1 and ectopic expression of PRDX1 conferred DOX resistance to MCF-7 cells. Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2, but interestingly not the monomeric form of them, can reverse DOX resistance by increasing the DOX-induced ROS damage. This indicated that the dimeric structure was crucial.  The results described herein suggest that Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 disrupt the monomer dimer homeostasis and lead to ROS build up in CSCs, which could result in the reversal of drug resistance. This work provided new insights into the mechanisms of cancer cell resistance and provides a novel strategy in reversing drug resistance in CSCs.
By targeting PRDX1, synthetic flavonoid dimer described herein can cause cellular ROS level upregulation and reverse the chemoresistance of breast CSCs to anti-cancer drugs such as DOX.
In a first aspect, provided herein is a method of reducing drug resistance of a cancer in a subject in need thereof to an anticancer drug, the method comprising: administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound to the subject, wherein the cancer overexpresses peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) and the compound has Formula 1:
or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
A is a bond or a moiety of Formula 2:
m is a whole number selected from 1-3;
n is a whole number selected from 1-3;
p is a whole number selected from 0-4;
R1 is a moiety of Formula 3 or Formula 4:
R2 is a moiety of Formula 5:
R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, - (CH2pPhR9, or -C (O) PhR9;
each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2, -S (O) 2R, -S (O) 2N (R) 2, -N (R) S (O) 2R, -C≡CH, -CH2OCH2C≡CH, -OCH2C≡CH, -N (CH2C≡CH) 2, -C (O) OCH2C≡CH, -N3, -CH2N3,
R8 is hydrogen or a moiety of Formula 6:
X is O or H2;
R11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, or -N3; and
R for each instance is independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or aralkyl.
In certain embodiments, m is 1 and n is 2; or m is 2 and n is 2.
In certain embodiments, each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -CH2OCH2C≡CH, -OCH2C≡CH, -N (CH2C≡CH) 2, -C (O) OCH2C≡CH, -N3, -CH2N3, and
In certain embodiments, each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl,  halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R; and R11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, or -N (R) C (O) OR.
In certain embodiments, the compound has Formula 7:
or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R;
R11 is -C (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, or -N (R) C (O) OR.
In certain embodiments, each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, and -N (R) 2; and R11 is -C (O) OR.
In certain embodiments, the compound has Formula 8:
or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R9 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R.
In certain embodiments, each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R9 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, and -N (R) 2.
In certain embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.
In certain embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:
pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.
In certain embodiments, the anticancer drug is selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
In certain embodiments, the method further comprises co-administering an anticancer drug is selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
In certain embodiments, the cancer is head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer, esophageal cancer, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, liver cancer, myeloma, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and bladder cancer.
In certain embodiments, the cancer is breast cancer.
In a second aspect, provided herein is a method of treating cancer in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising: co-administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound and a therapeutically effective amount of an anticancer drug to the subject, wherein the cancer overexpresses peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) and the compound has Formula 1:
or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
A is a bond or a moiety of Formula 2:
m is a whole number selected from 1-3;
n is a whole number selected from 1-3;
p is a whole number selected from 0-4;
R1 is a moiety of Formula 3 or Formula 4:
R2 is a moiety of Formula 5:
R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, - (CH2pPhR9, or -C (O) PhR9;
each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2, -S (O) 2R, -S (O) 2N (R) 2, and -N (R) S (O) 2R;
R8 hydrogen or a moiety of Formula 6:
X is O or H2;
R11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, or -N (R) C (O) OR; and R for each instance is independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or aralkyl.
In certain embodiments, m is 1 and n is 2; or m is 2 and n is 2.
In certain embodiments, each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R; and R11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, or -N (R) C (O) OR.
In certain embodiments, the compound has Formula 7:
or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R;
R11 is -C (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, or -N (R) C (O) OR.
In certain embodiments, each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, and -N (R) 2; and R11 is -C (O) OR.
In certain embodiments, the compound has Formula 8:
or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R9 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R.
In certain embodiments, each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R9 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, and -N (R) 2.
In certain embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:
pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.
In certain embodiments, the anticancer drug is selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
In certain embodiments, the cancer is breast cancer, lung cancer, colorectal cancer, ovarian cancer, gastric cancer, prostate cancer, pancreatic cancer and liver cancer.
In certain embodiments, the cancer is breast cancer.
In certain embodiments, the anticancer drug is doxorubicin.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
The present invention is illustrated by the accompanying drawings of various embodiments and the detailed description given below. The drawings should not be taken to limit the invention to the specific embodiments but are for explanation and understanding. The detailed description and drawings are merely illustrative of the invention rather than limiting, the scope of the invention being defined by the appended claims and equivalents thereof. The drawings are not to scale. The foregoing aspects and other attendant advantages of the present invention will become more readily appreciated by the detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.
Figure 1 Chemical structure and effective concentration (EC50) of Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 for reversing DOX resistance in CSC.
Figure 2 Flavonoid dimers Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 can reverse the resistance of multiple anticancer drugs in CSCs. IC50 of DOX, Daunorubicin (DNR) , vincristine (VCR) , Cisplatin (CP) , Paclitaxel (PTX) , Mitoxantrone (MTX) , Etoposide (ETOP) , Docetaxel (DTX) and Topotecan (Topo) (μM) was determined in the presence of flavonoid dimer Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 at 1 μM after 3 days incubation in the breast CSCs. The values were presented as mean ± SEM. N=3 independent experiments.
Figure 3 Combination of DOX and flavonoid dimer suppressed the growth and mammosphere formation ability of MCF7-CSCs. (A) IC50 of DOX (μM) was determined in the presence of synthetic flavonoid dimer Ac13Az9, Ac15 (Az2) 2 and their flavonoid monomers at 1 μM after 3 days incubation in the breast CSCs and MCF-7 (parental cell line of CSCs) . Small molecules Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 can significantly reverse the DOX IC50 of CSCs (P<0.001) at 1 μM while their monomer cannot reverse. The values were presented as mean ± SEM. N=2-6  independent experiments. (B) Representative images of mammosphere of CSCs in solvent control (DMSO) , 0.3 μM DOX, 1 μM modulators, and their combination treatments after 7 days of growth. Scale bars, 100 μm. (C) The number of mammosphere was counted with Image J. Only the mammosphere with diameter >20 μm was enumerated. After 7 days of incubations, cotreatment groups had a significantly lower amount of mammosphere than single treatment and control groups. The values were presented as mean ± SEM. N=4.
Figure 4 In vivo characterization of Ac15 (Az2) 2. (A) Plasma concentration of Ac15 (Az2) 2 against time. Female Balb/c mice were i.v. injected with 20 mg/kg or i.p. injected with 20, 40, and 80 mg/kg of Ac15 (Az2) 2. At 10 to 480 minutes post administration, animals were sacrificed to collect the blood and the plasma concentration of modulator was analyzed by UPLC-MS/MS. Two dash lines at 30 ng/mL and 200 ng/mL indicate the corresponding EC50 of Ac15 (Az2) 2 for reversing DOX resistance in CSC (32 nM) and MCF-7 (188 nM) , respectively. There were 3-4 mice at each time point. Pharmacokinetic parameter AUC was calculated by the pharmacokinetic software-Summit PK solution. (B) Intratumour concentration of Ac15 (Az2) 2 against time. Balb/c nude mice were subcutaneously xenografted with MCF-7. The mice with tumour between 100-500 mm3 were randomized and administered once with 40 or 80 mg/kg Ac15 (Az2) 2 i.p. (N=2-4) . At different time points (1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 hr) of post-administration, mice were sacrificed, tumour samples were collected, weighed, homogenized and analyzed by UPLC-MS/MS. The concentration of Ac15 (Az2) 2 was normalized to the tumour weight. Two dash lines at 30 ng/mL and 200 ng/mL represent the in vitro EC50 of Ac15 (Az2) 2 in CSC (32 nM) and MCF-7 (188 nM) , respectively. The values in this figure were presented as mean ± SEM. (C) In vivo toxicity of Ac15 (Az2) 2 in combination with DOX was conducted. Balb/c mice were randomized into three groups with four mice in each group (N=4) . The treatments included (1) DOX 1.2 mg/kg i.v. (dissolved in water) , (2) DOX 1.2 mg/kg i.v. + Ac15 (Az2) 2 60 mg/kg i.p. (dissolved in 10%NMP + 10%Cremephor EL + 80%saline) , and (3) DOX 1.2 mg/kg i.v. + Ac15 (Az2) 2 80 mg/kg i.p. Administration was conducted once every 2 days for 10 injections. Body weight of Balb/c mice during experiments was recorded once every 2 days. The loss of body weight, appetite or treatment-related mortality was monitored and defined as toxicity. All values in this figure were presented as mean ± SEM.
Figure 5 In vivo efficacy of combination of DOX and Ac15 (Az2) 2 in treating breast cancer MCF-7 xenograft. (A) Balb/c nude mice were subcutaneously xenografted with MCF-7 after  transplantation of estradiol pallet. After the tumours reaching 150 mm3, the mice were randomized and treated with (1) Ac15 (Az2) 2 solvent, (2) DOX 1 mg/kg i.v. (3) Ac15 (Az2) 2 80 mg/kg i.p. and (4) co-treatment: Ac15 (Az2) 2 80 mg/kg i.p. was injected 2 hr prior to DOX 1 mg/kg i.v. All groups were administrated once every 2 days for 10 injections. Treatments were given as indicated as an arrow. Tumour volume was measured using a digital calliper every 4 days and percentage change in tumour volume was plotted against days post-treatment (N=7-8) . Estimated tumour volume (mm3) was calculated as 1/2 x length x width2 in mm and normalized to the tumour volume on the first day of treatment. The values were presented as mean ± SEM. For the tumour volume at day 20, statistical analysis (Two-way ANOVA) was conducted between DOX alone group and control and between the co-treatment group and DOX alone group. ***, P=0.0001 and ****, P<0.0001. (B) At the end of MCF-7 xenograft efficacy study (day 20) , all tumours were dissected. (C) Summary of in vivo efficacy of Ac15 (Az2) 2 combined with DOX in treating MCF-7 xenograft breast cancer model. (D) Body weight changes in MCF-7 xenograft Balb/c nude mice treated with Ac15 (Az2) 2 combined with DOX were recorded. Body weight was recorded once every 2 days. Changes in weight were expressed in percentage and plotted against days. Body weight loss larger than 15%indicates treatment-induced toxicity. (E) The percent survival of mice in each treatment group in the efficacy experiments. Survival of animals was monitored every day. The survival percentage was plotted against days. (F) Weight of organs in each group was recorded on day 20 after the sacrifice of the Balb/c nude mice. Upon autopsy, vital organs (heart, liver, lung, spleen and kidney) were weighed. They were compared individually to the PBS control group to see if there were any treatment-related adverse effects.
Figure 6 Identification of Ac13Az9 binding targets using photocrosslinker (A) The localization of Ac13Az9 and its potential targets in CSCs was studied by fluorescence staining. CSCs were incubated with either DMSO control or Ac13Az9 crosslinker 5 (XC5) , after fixation, the target-Ac13Az9 conjugate was clicked with Alexa 647-alkyne under the catalysation of copper and TBTA. The signal was visualized with a confocal microscope (A) and super-resolution microscope (B) . (i) DAPI staining of nuclei (ii) distribution of Alexa-crosslinker conjugate and their protein targets and (iii) superimposition of blue and red fluorescence. All cells were counterstained with DAPI. (C) Cell lysate cytoplasm fraction was incubated with Ac13Az9 crosslinker 2, clicked with Alexa 647-azide and separated with SDS-PAGE. Signal was viewed under UV by Azure C600 showed potential protein targets of crosslinker 2. (DMSO) negative  control, Ac13Az9 crosslinker 2 (XC2) . Arrow points at PRDX1. Gels were stained with Coomassie blue to indicate protein loading control. (D) Ac13Az9 XC2, protein-probe conjugate was clicked with biotin-azide, separated with SDS-PAGE and visualized with Streptavidin-HRP. Blot was stained with Ponceau S. to indicate the loading. (E) For enrichment, biotin-azide clicked lysate was incubated with Streptavidin-Sepharose beads. Pull-down fractions containing Ac13Az9 target proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE and viewed by silver staining. Five bands as indicated were excised and subjected to identification. The red square highlighted the PRDX1 protein band.
Figure 7 Detection of PRDX1 by antibody from Ac13Az9 photocrosslinker pull-down fraction. HEK 293 transiently overexpressed PRDX1 by transfection with Lipofectamine 3000. PRDX1 overexpression plasmid was purchased from Addgene (#38086) . Total cell lysate from PRDX1-overexpressed HEK293 was incubated with Ac13Az9 photocrosslinker in the presence or absence of cold ligands Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2. The pull-down fraction was compared to the DMSO control. Non-reduced gel was performed by omitting the beta-mercaptoethanol
Figure 8 PRDX1 overexpression confers DOX resistance to HEK293 and MCF-7. HEK 293 and MCF-7 were transiently transfected to express PRDX1 by Lipofectamin 3000. PRDX1 overexpression plasmid (#38086) was purchased from Addgene. After 6 days of transfection, the expression level of PRDX1 in mock and plasmid transfection was viewed by SDS-PAGE in HEK 293 and MCF-7 with anti-Peroxiredoxin1 1/PAG antibody (Abcam, ab41906) . To determine the IC50, after 6 days of transfection, cells were incubated with DOX in the presence or absence of modulator for 3 days and examined by MTS. N= 3 independent experiments.
Figure 9 The overall protein level of PRDX1 and PRDX2 in MCF-7 and CSCs. The total protein level of PRDX1 and PRDX2 in MCF-7 and CSCs under the treatments of 0.3 μM DOX or 2 μM modulator separately or in combination. After 3 days of incubation, cells were harvested, lysed with RIPA buffer and studied by Western Blot using anti-PRDX1/PAG antibody (Abcam, ab41906) and anti-PRDX2/PRP antibody (Abcam, ab109367) . Beta-actin was used as the loading control.
Figure 10 The level of dimeric PRDX1 under treatment with either Ac13Az9 or Ac15 (Az2) 2. (A) CSCs were incubated with either 2 μM of modulators or inactive monomer Az2 for 15 minutes to 48 hours. At each time point, cells were collected and analysed for the level of  PRDX1 dimer using Western Blot. Beta-actin was used as the loading control. (B) The quantitative result of PRDX1 dimer level in the modulator and inactive monomer treated CSCs (N=2 independent experiments) . **, P=0.01
Figure 11 The protein level of PRDX1/2 dimer and monomer under different treatments. MCF-7 and CSCs were treated with 0.3 μM DOX and 2 μM modulators either alone or in combination. After 3 days of incubation, cells from each group were collected, lysed with RIPA, separated on non-reduced SDS-PAGE and analysed using Western Blot with anti-PRDX1/2 antibodies. Beta-actin was used as the loading control. The quantitative dimer-to-monomer ratio was shown on the right panel (N=1-2 independent experiments) .
Figure 12 The protein level of hyperoxidized PRDXs under different treatments. CSCs were treated with 0.3 μM DOX and 2 μM modulators either alone or in combination for 1 to 3 days. Cells were collected at the indicated time point and lysed with RIPA for Western Blot analysis. Hyperoxidized PRDX protein was detected by an anti-Peroxiredoxin-SO3 antibody (Abcam, ab16830) . Beta-actin was used as the loading control.
Figure 13 Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 cause ROS level upregulation in CSCs and MCF-7. (A) MCF-7 and CSCs were incubated with increasing concentrations of modulators or their inactive monomers (2 μM) for 3 hours at 37℃. Cells were harvested and incubated with 10 μM DCF-DA (Ex/Em=495/529, Invitrogen Life Technologies) at 37℃ in the dark for 1 hour. Cells were collected and subjected into C6 flow cytometer (BD Accuri) analysis for their ROS level. (B) CSCs and MCF-7 were treated with either 2 μM Ac13Az9 or Ac15 (Az2) 2 for 1 to 24 hours. Cells were collected at each time point, incubated with DCF-DC and analysed with a C6 flow cytometer for their ROS level. N=1-3 independent experiments.
Figure 14 The NADPH and GSH levels in CSCs when treated with DOX and modulators. (A) CSCs were treated with DOX and modulator alone or in combination. After 3 days of incubation, cells were harvested and analyzed for their cellular NADPH level with a NADP+/NADPH quantification assay kit (Beyotime) according to the manufacturer’s manual. (B) Treated cells were collected and measured for their intracellular GSH level using a GSH/GSSG quantification assay kit (Beyotime) . The values were presented as mean ± SEM. N=2.
Figure 15 ROS depletion by GSH pre-incubation abolished modulating activity of  flavonoid dimers. (A) CSCs were pre-incubated with or without 5 mM GSH overnight before adding of treatments: 4 μM DOX, 1 μM Ac13Az9, 1 μM Ac15 (Az2) 2, 4 μM DOX + 1 μM Ac13Az9 and 4 μM DOX + 1 μM Ac15 (Az2) 2. After 3 hours of incubation, cells were treated with 10 μM of DCF-DA and collected for ROS analysis. (B) CSCs were pre-incubated with or without 5 mM GSH following by treatments as listed for 24 hours. The viability of CSCs was determined by counting cells under a microscope after staining with trypan blue. The values were presented as mean ± SEM. N=3 independent experiments.
Figure 16 The expression of p53, p-p53 and p21 in CSCs. The protein level of p53, p21 and phosphorylated p53 was determined in MCF-7 and CSCs under the treatments of DMSO control, 0.3 μM DOX, 2 μM Ac13Az9, 2 μM Ac15 (Az2) 2, 0.3 μM DOX + 2 μM Ac13Az9 and 0.3 μM DOX + 2 μM Ac15 (Az2) 2. After 3 days of incubation, cells were collected and analysed with Western Blot using anti-p53 (DO-1) antibody (Santa Cruz, sc-126) , anti-p21 (F-5) antibody (Santa Cruz, sc-6246) and anti-phospho-p53 (Ser15) antibody (cell signalling, #9284) . Beta-actin was used as the loading control.
Figure 17 shows Table 1 presenting EC50 of flavonoid dimers in reversing DOX resistance in CSCs. The EC50 of a total of 61 flavonoid dimers were determined for their activities in reversing DOX resistance in CSCs. EC50 is defined as the concentration of modulators at which can reduce the IC50 of DOX by 50%. The EC50 value is presented as mean ± standard error of mean (SEM) . N=1-4 independent experiments.
Figure 18 shows Table 2 presenting the chemical structure and EC50 of Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 crosslinkers in CSCs. The photocrosslinking functional group used was either a phenyl azide or a diazirine which form a covalent bond to the target proteins under UV activation. The click chemistry function group was either an azide or an alkyne for pull-down and identification. N=3-4 independent experiments (except for compounds XC3, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 which has an EC50 >1000 nM) .
Figure 19 shows Table 3 presenting the putative binding proteins of Ac13Az9 identified. emPAI: exponentially modified protein abundance index. PAI is defined as the number of observed peptides divided by the number of observable peptides per protein. emPAI is used for absolute quantitation, it equals to 10PAI minus one.
Figure 20 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac13Az9 XC1.
Figure 21 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac13Az9 XC2.
Figure 22 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac13Az9 XC3.
Figure 23 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac13Az9 XC4.
Figure 24 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac13Az9 XC5.
Figure 25 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac13Az9 XC6.
Figure 26 shows an exemplary synthesis of Ac15 (Az2) 2 XC8 and XC9.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
Definitions
The following terms shall be used to describe the present invention. In the absence of a specific definition set forth herein, the terms used to describe the present invention shall be given their common meaning as understood by those of ordinary skill in the art.
Throughout the present specification, unless the context requires otherwise, the word "comprise" or variations such as "comprises" or "comprising" , will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated integer or group of integers but not the exclusion of any other integer or group of integers. It is also noted that in this disclosure and particularly in the claims and/or paragraphs, terms such as “comprises” , “comprised” , “comprising” and the like can have the meaning attributed to it in U.S. Patent law; e.g., they can mean “includes” , “included” , “including” , and the like; and that terms such as “consisting essentially of” and “consists essentially of” have the meaning ascribed to them in U.S. Patent law, e.g., they allow for elements not explicitly recited, but exclude elements that are found in the prior art or that affect a basic or novel characteristic of the present invention.
Furthermore, throughout the present specification and claims, unless the context requires otherwise, the word “include” or variations such as “includes” or “including” , will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated integer or group of integers but not the exclusion of any other integer or group of integers.
The use of the singular herein includes the plural (and vice versa) unless specifically stated otherwise. In addition, where the use of the term "about" is before a quantitative value, the present teachings also include the specific quantitative value itself, unless specifically stated otherwise.  As used herein, the term "about" refers to a ±10%, ±7%, ±5%, ±3%, ±1%, or ±0%variation from the nominal value unless otherwise indicated or inferred.
As used herein, the terms “treat” , "treating" , "treatment" , and the like refer to reducing or ameliorating a disorder/disease and/or symptoms associated therewith. It will be appreciated, although not precluded, treating a disorder or condition does not require that the disorder, condition, or symptoms associated therewith be completely eliminated. In certain embodiments, treatment includes prevention of a disorder or condition, and/or symptoms associated therewith. The term “prevention” or “prevent” as used herein refers to any action that inhibits or at least delays the development of a disorder, condition, or symptoms associated therewith. Prevention can include primary, secondary and tertiary prevention levels, wherein: a) primary prevention avoids the development of a disease; b) secondary prevention activities are aimed at early disease treatment, thereby increasing opportunities for interventions to prevent progression of the disease and emergence of symptoms; and c) tertiary prevention reduces the negative impact of an already established disease by restoring function and reducing disease-related complications.
The term "subject" as used herein, refers to an animal, typically a mammal or a human, that will be or has been the object of treatment, observation, and/or experiment. When the term is used in conjunction with administration of a compound described herein, then the subject has been the object of treatment, observation, and/or administration of the compound described herein.
The term "therapeutically effective amount" as used herein, means that amount of the compound or pharmaceutical agent that elicits a biological and/or medicinal response in a cell culture, tissue system, subject, animal, or human that is being sought by a researcher, veterinarian, clinician, or physician, which includes alleviation of the symptoms of the disease, condition, or disorder being treated.
The terms "co-administration" and "co-administering" refer to both concurrent administration (administration of two or more therapeutic agents at the same time) and time varied administration (administration of one or more therapeutic agents at a time different from that of the administration of an additional therapeutic agent or agents) , as long as the therapeutic agents are present in the patient to some extent at the same time.
As used herein, unless otherwise indicated, the term “halo” or “halide” includes fluoro, chloro, bromo or iodo.
As used herein, "alkyl" refers to a straight-chain or branched saturated hydrocarbon group.  Examples of alkyl groups include methyl-, ethyl-, propyl (e.g., n-propyl and isopropyl) , butyl (e.g., n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl) , pentyl groups (e.g., 1-methylbutyl, 2-methylbutyl, iso-pentyl, tert-pentyl, 1, 2-dimethylpropyl, neopentyl, and 1-ethylpropyl) , hexyl groups, and the like. In various embodiments, an alkyl group can have 1 to 40 carbon atoms (i.e., C1-40 alkyl group) , for example, 1-30 carbon atoms (i.e., C1-30 alkyl group) . In certain embodiments, an alkyl group can have 1 to 6 carbon atoms, and can be referred to as a "lower alkyl group. " Examples of lower alkyl groups include methyl, ethyl, propyl (e.g., n-propyl and isopropyl) , and butyl groups (e.g., n-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl) . In certain embodiments, alkyl groups can be optionally substituted as described herein. An alkyl group is generally not substituted with another alkyl group, an alkenyl group, or an alkynyl group.
As used herein, "alkenyl" refers to a straight-chain or branched alkyl group having one or more carbon-carbon double bonds. Examples of alkenyl groups include ethenyl, propenyl, butenyl, pentenyl, hexenyl, butadienyl, pentadienyl, hexadienyl groups, and the like. The one or more carbon-carbon double bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butene) or terminal (such as in 1-butene) . In various embodiments, an alkenyl group can have 2 to 40 carbon atoms (i.e., C2-40 alkenyl group) , for example, 2 to 20 carbon atoms (i.e., C2-20 alkenyl group) . In certain embodiments, alkenyl groups can be substituted as described herein. An alkenyl group is generally not substituted with another alkenyl group, an alkyl group, or an alkynyl group.
As used herein, "cycloalkyl" by itself or as part of another substituent means, unless otherwise stated, a monocyclic hydrocarbon having between 3-12 carbon atoms in the ring system and includes hydrogen, straight chain, branched chain, and/or cyclic substituents. Exemplary cycloalkyls include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, and the like.
As used herein, a "fused ring" or a "fused ring moiety" refers to a polycyclic ring system having at least two rings where at least one of the rings is aromatic and such aromatic ring (carbocyclic or heterocyclic) has a bond in common with at least one other ring that can be aromatic or non-aromatic, and carbocyclic or heterocyclic. These polycyclic ring systems can be highly p-conjugated and optionally substituted as described herein.
As used herein, "heteroatom" refers to an atom of any element other than carbon or hydrogen and includes, for example, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, sulfur, phosphorus, and selenium.
The term "heterocycloalkyl” as used herein includes reference to a saturated heterocyclic moiety having 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 ring carbon atoms and 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 ring heteroatoms selected from  nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur. The group may be a polycyclic ring system but more often is monocyclic. This term includes reference to groups such as azetidinyl, pyrrolidinyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, piperidinyl, oxiranyl, pyrazolidinyl, imidazolyl, indolizidinyl, piperazinyl, thiazolidinyl, morpholinyl, thiomorpholinyl, quinolizidinyl and the like.
As used herein, "aryl" refers to an aromatic monocyclic hydrocarbon ring system or a polycyclic ring system in which two or more aromatic hydrocarbon rings are fused (i.e., having a bond in common with) together or at least one aromatic monocyclic hydrocarbon ring is fused to one or more cycloalkyl and/or cycloheteroalkyl rings. An aryl group can have 6 to 24 carbon atoms in its ring system (e.g., C6-24 aryl group) , which can include multiple fused rings. In certain embodiments, a polycyclic aryl group can have 8 to 24 carbon atoms. Any suitable ring position of the aryl group can be covalently linked to the defined chemical structure. Examples of aryl groups having only aromatic carbocyclic ring (s) include phenyl, 1-naphthyl (bicyclic) , 2-naphthyl (bicyclic) , anthracenyl (tricyclic) , phenanthrenyl (tricyclic) , pentacenyl (pentacyclic) , and like groups. Examples of polycyclic ring systems in which at least one aromatic carbocyclic ring is fused to one or more cycloalkyl and/or cycloheteroalkyl rings include, among others, benzo derivatives of cyclopentane (i.e., an indanyl group, which is a 5, 6-bicyclic cycloalkyl/aromatic ring system) , cyclohexane (i.e., a tetrahydronaphthyl group, which is a 6, 6-bicyclic cycloalkyl/aromatic ring system) , imidazoline (i.e., a benzimidazolinyl group, which is a 5, 6-bicyclic cycloheteroalkyl/aromatic ring system) , and pyran (i.e., a chromenyl group, which is a 6, 6-bicyclic cycloheteroalkyl/aromatic ring system) . Other examples of aryl groups include benzodioxanyl, benzodioxolyl, chromanyl, indolinyl groups, and the like. In certain embodiments, aryl groups can be optionally substituted. In certain embodiments, an aryl group can have one or more halogen substituents, and can be referred to as a "haloaryl" group. Perhaloaryl groups, i.e., aryl groups where all of the hydrogen atoms are replaced with halogen atoms (e.g., -C6F5) , are included within the definition of "haloaryl. " In certain embodiments, an aryl group is substituted with another aryl group and can be referred to as a biaryl group. Each of the aryl groups in the biaryl group can be optionally substituted.
The term "aralkyl" refers to an alkyl group substituted with an aryl group.
As used herein, "heteroaryl" refers to an aromatic monocyclic ring system containing at least one ring heteroatom selected from oxygen (O) , nitrogen (N) , sulfur (S) , silicon (Si) , and selenium (Se) or a polycyclic ring system where at least one of the rings present in the ring system  is aromatic and contains at least one ring heteroatom. Polycyclic heteroaryl groups include those having two or more heteroaryl rings fused together, as well as those having at least one monocyclic heteroaryl ring fused to one or more aromatic carbocyclic rings, non-aromatic carbocyclic rings, and/or non-aromatic cycloheteroalkyl rings. A heteroaryl group, as a whole, can have, for example, 5 to 24 ring atoms and contain 1-5 ring heteroatoms (i.e., 5-20 membered heteroaryl group) . The heteroaryl group can be attached to the defined chemical structure at any heteroatom or carbon atom that results in a stable structure. Generally, heteroaryl rings do not contain O-O, S-S, or S-O bonds. However, one or more N or S atoms in a heteroaryl group can be oxidized (e.g., pyridine N-oxide thiophene S-oxide, thiophene S, S-dioxide) . Examples of heteroaryl groups include, for example, the 5-or 6-membered monocyclic and 5-6 bicyclic ring systems shown below:
where T is O, S, NH, N-alkyl, N-aryl, N- (arylalkyl) (e.g., N-benzyl) , SiH2, SiH (alkyl) , Si (alkyl) 2, SiH (arylalkyl) , Si (arylalkyl) 2, or Si (alkyl) (arylalkyl) . Examples of such heteroaryl rings include pyrrolyl, furyl, thienyl, pyridyl, pyrimidyl, pyridazinyl, pyrazinyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, isothiazolyl, thiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, isoxazolyl, oxazolyl, oxadiazolyl, indolyl,  isoindolyl, benzofuryl, benzothienyl, quinolyl, 2-methylquinolyl, isoquinolyl, quinoxalyl, quinazolyl, benzotriazolyl, benzimidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzisothiazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzoxadiazolyl, benzoxazolyl, cinnolinyl, lH-indazolyl, 2H-indazolyl, indolizinyl, isobenzofuyl, naphthyridinyl, phthalazinyl, pteridinyl, purinyl, oxazolopyridinyl, thiazolopyridinyl, imidazopyridinyl, furopyridinyl, thienopyridinyl, pyridopyrimidinyl, pyridopyrazinyl, pyridopyridazinyl, thienothiazolyl, thienoxazolyl, thienoimidazolyl groups, and the like. Further examples of heteroaryl groups include 4, 5, 6, 7-tetrahydroindolyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, benzothienopyridinyl, benzofuropyridinyl groups, and the like. In certain embodiments, heteroaryl groups can be substituted as described herein. In certain embodiments, heteroaryl groups can be optionally substituted.
The term "optionally substituted" refers to a chemical group, such as alkyl, cycloalkyl aryl, and the like, wherein one or more hydrogen may be replaced with a substituent as described herein, for example, halogen, azide, alkyl, aralkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, hydroxyl, alkoxyl, amino, nitro, sulfhydryl, imino, amido, phosphonate, phosphinate, carbonyl, carboxyl, silyl, ether, alkylthio, sulfonyl, sulfonamido, ketone, aldehyde, ester, heterocyclyl, aromatic or heteroaromatic moieties, -CF3, -CN, or the like
The term "carbocycle" is art-recognized and refers to an aromatic or non-aromatic ring in which each atom of the ring is carbon.
The term "nitro" is art-recognized and refers to -NO2; the term "halogen" is art-recognized and refers to -F, -Cl, -Br or -I; the term "sulfhydryl" is art-recognized and refers to -SH; the term "hydroxyl" means -OH; and the term "sulfonyl" and “sulfone” is art-recognized and refers to -SO2-. "Halide" designates the corresponding anion of the halogens.
As used herein, the term "pharmaceutically acceptable salt" refers to those salts which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of subjects without undue toxicity, irritation, allergic response and the like, and are commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts are well known in the art. For example, Berge et al. describes pharmaceutically acceptable salts in detail in J. Pharmaceutical Sciences (1977) 66: 1-19. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds provided herein include those derived from suitable inorganic and organic acids and bases. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable, nontoxic acid addition salts are salts of an amino group formed with  inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid and perchloric acid or with organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid or malonic acid or by using other methods used in the art such as ion exchange. Other pharmaceutically acceptable salts include adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, besylate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, formate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate, oxalate, palmitate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate, phosphate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, stearate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, thiocyanate, p-toluenesulfonate, undecanoate, valerate salts, and the like. In certain embodiments, organic acids from which salts can be derived include, for example, acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid, salicylic acid, and the like.
Pharmaceutically acceptable salts derived from appropriate bases include alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, ammonium and N+ (C1-4alkyl) 4 salts. Representative alkali or alkaline earth metal salts include sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, aluminum, and the like. Further pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, when appropriate, non-toxic ammonium, quaternary ammonium, and amine cations formed using counterions, such as halide, hydroxide, carboxylate, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, lower alkyl sulfonate, and aryl sulfonate. Organic bases from which salts can be derived include, for example, primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, substituted amines including naturally occurring substituted amines, cyclic amines, basic ion exchange resins, and the like, such as isopropylamine, trimethylamine, diethylamine, triethylamine, tripropylamine, and ethanolamine. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salt is chosen from ammonium, potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts.
Provided herein is a method of reducing drug resistance of a cancer in a subject in need thereof to an anticancer drug, the method comprising: administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound to the subject, wherein the cancer overexpresses peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) and the compound has Formula 1:
or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
A is a bond or a moiety of Formula 2:
m is a whole number selected from 1-3;
n is a whole number selected from 1-3;
p is a whole number selected from 0-4;
R1 is a moiety of Formula 3 or Formula 4:
R2 is a moiety of Formula 5:
R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, - (CH2pPhR9, or -C (O) PhR9;
R4 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2, -S (O) 2R, -S (O) 2N (R) 2, -N (R) S (O) 2R, -C≡CH, -OCH2C≡CH, -N (CH2C≡CH) , -C (O) OCH2C≡CH, -N3, -CH2N3
each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2, -S (O) 2R, -S (O) 2N (R) 2, -N (R) S (O) 2R, -C≡CH, -CH2OCH2C≡CH, -OCH2C≡CH, -N (CH2C≡CH) 2, -C (O) OCH2C≡CH, -N3, -CH2N3,
R8 hydrogen or a moiety of Formula 6:
X is O or H2;
R11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, or -N3; and
R for each instance is independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or aralkyl.
The compounds described herein can encompass different positional isomers indicated by a bond that is not attached to the vertex of a chemical structure, such as illustrated using the model structure below:
In this model structure, the group R can be connected to any atom on the ring structure, valency permitting, i.e., carbons 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 in the structure above.
In certain embodiments, m is 1-2 or 2-3. In certain embodiments, m is 1-2.
In certain embodiments, m is 1-2 or 2-3. In certain embodiments, m is 2.
In certain embodiments, p is 0-4, 1-4, 2-4, 3-4, 0-3, 0-2, 0-1, or 1-2. In certain embodiments, p is 1.
R1 can be a moiety selected from the group consisting of:
In certain embodiments, R1 is
R2 can be a moiety selected from the group consisting of:
In certain embodiments, R2 is
In certain embodiments, R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, In certain embodiments, R3 is benzyl.
In certain embodiments, each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2, -S (O) 2R, -S (O) 2N (R) 2, -N (R) S (O) 2R, -C≡CH, -CH2OCH2C≡CH, -OCH2C≡CH, -N (CH2C≡CH) 2, -C (O) OCH2C≡CH, -N3, -CH2N3
In instances in which the compound of Formula 1 is used for target identification one or more of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, R10 , or R11 can be a pull-down moiety selected from the group consisting of: -C≡CH, -CH2OCH2C≡CH, -OCH2C≡CH, -N (CH2C≡CH) 2, -C (O) OCH2C≡CH, -N3, -CH2N3In certain embodiments, 1 or 2 of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, R10, or R11 is a pull-down moiety.
In certain embodiments, each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2, -S (O) 2R, -S (O) 2N (R) 2, and -N (R) S (O) 2R; or each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R; or each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is hydrogen.
In instances in which R8 is a moiety of Formula 6, X can be O or H2 as illustrated below:
R11 can be hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, or -N3. In certain embodiments, R11 is hydrogen, -C (O) OC1-C6alkyl, -C (O) OC1-C5alkyl, -C (O) OC1-C4alkyl, -C (O) OC1-C3alkyl, or -C (O) OC1-C2alkyl. In certain embodiments, R11 is hydrogen or -C (O) OMe.
R for each instance can independently be hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or aralkyl. In certain embodiments, R for each instance is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C1-C12alkyl, C1-C6alkyl, C3-C8cycloalkyl, C3-C6cycloalkyl, 3-6 membered heterocycloalkyl comprising 1, 2, 3 heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, and N, C6-C10aryl, C3-C8heteroaryl comprising 1, 2, 3 heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, and N, or C6-C10ar (C1-C2) alkyl. In certain embodiments, R for each instance is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C1-C6alkyl, C1-C5alkyl, C1-C4alkyl, C1-C3alkyl, and C1-C2alkyl.
In certain embodiments, the compound has Formula 7:
or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R10, and R11 is independently as defined in any embodiment or combination of embodiments described herein.
In certain embodiments, the compound has Formula 8:
or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R9 is independently as defined in any embodiment or combination of embodiments described herein.
In certain embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:


pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.
The anticancer drug can be selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
In certain embodiments, the method of reducing drug resistance of a cancer in a subject in need thereof to an anticancer drug further comprises co-administering an anticancer drug is selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
The methods provided herein can be used in the treatment of cancers that overexpress PRDX1. PRDX1 expression can be upregulated in a variety of human solid tumors including, but not limited to, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer such as triple-negative breast cancer, esophageal cancer, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, liver cancer, myeloma, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and bladder cancer. In certain embodiments, the cancer is breast cancer.
The present disclosure also provides a method of treating cancer in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising: co-administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound and a therapeutically effective amount of an anticancer drug to the subject, wherein the cancer overexpresses peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) and the compound has Formula 1:
or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
A is a bond or a moiety of Formula 2:
m is a whole number selected from 1-3;
n is a whole number selected from 1-3;
p is a whole number selected from 0-4;
R1 is a moiety of Formula 3 or Formula 4:
R2 is a moiety of Formula 5:
R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, - (CH2pPhR9, or -C (O) PhR9;
R4 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2, -S (O) 2R, -S (O) 2N (R) 2, or -N (R) S (O) 2R;
each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2, -S (O) 2R, -S (O) 2N (R) 2, and -N (R) S (O) 2R;
R8 hydrogen or a moiety of Formula 6:
X is O or H2;
R11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, or -N (R) C (O) OR; and R for each instance is independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or aralkyl.
In certain embodiments, m is 1-2 or 2-3. In certain embodiments, m is 1-2.
In certain embodiments, m is 1-2 or 2-3. In certain embodiments, m is 2.
In certain embodiments, p is 0-4, 1-4, 2-4, 3-4, 0-3, 0-2, 0-1, or 1-2. In certain embodiments, p is 1.
R1 can be a moiety selected from the group consisting of:
In certain embodiments, R1 is
R2 can be a moiety selected from the group consisting of:
In certain embodiments, R2 is
In certain embodiments, R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, In certain embodiments, R3 is benzyl.
In certain embodiments, each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2, -S (O) 2R, -S (O) 2N (R) 2, and -N (R) S (O) 2R.
In certain embodiments, each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2, -S (O) 2R, -S (O) 2N (R) 2, and -N (R) S (O) 2R; or each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently  selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R; or each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is hydrogen.
In instances in which R8 is a moiety of Formula 6, X can be O or H2 as illustrated below:
R11 can be hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, or -N (R) C (O) OR. In certain embodiments, R11 is hydrogen, -C (O) OC1-C6alkyl, -C (O) OC1-C5alkyl, -C (O) OC1-C4alkyl, -C (O) OC1-C3alkyl, or -C (O) OC1-C2alkyl. In certain embodiments, R11 is hydrogen or -C (O) OMe.
R for each instance can independently be hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or aralkyl. In certain embodiments, R for each instance is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C1-C12alkyl, C1-C6alkyl, C3-C8cycloalkyl, C3-C6cycloalkyl, 3-6 membered heterocycloalkyl comprising 1, 2, 3 heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, and N, C6-C10aryl, C3-C8heteroaryl comprising 1, 2, 3 heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, and N, or C6-C10ar (C1-C2) alkyl. In certain embodiments, R for each instance is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C1-C6alkyl, C1-C5alkyl, C1-C4alkyl, C1-C3alkyl, and C1-C2alkyl.
In certain embodiments, the compound has Formula 7:
or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R10, and R11 is independently as defined in any embodiment or combination of embodiments described herein.
In certain embodiments, the compound has Formula 8:
or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R9 is independently as defined in any embodiment or combination of embodiments described herein.
In certain embodiments, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.
The anticancer drug can be selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
In certain embodiments, the cancer is head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer such as triple-negative breast cancer, esophageal cancer, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, liver cancer, myeloma, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and bladder cancer. In certain embodiments, the cancer is breast cancer.
The compounds described herein can be administered according to therapeutic protocols well known in the art. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the administration of the compounds described herein and the anticancer drug can be varied depending on the cancer being treated and the known effects of the anticancer drug on that cancer. Also, in accordance with the knowledge of the skilled clinician, the therapeutic protocols (e.g., dosage amounts and times of administration) can be varied in view of the observed effects of the administered therapeutic agents (i.e., anticancer drug) on the patient, and in view of the observed responses of the cancer to the administered therapeutic agents.
Also, in general, compounds described herein and the anticancer drug do not have to be administered in the same pharmaceutical composition, and may, because of different physical and chemical characteristics, have to be administered by different routes. For example, compounds described herein may be administered intravenously to generate and maintain good blood levels, while the anticancer drug may be administered orally. The determination of the mode of administration and the advisability of administration, where possible, in the same pharmaceutical composition, is well within the knowledge of the skilled clinician. The initial administration can  be made according to established protocols known in the art, and then, based upon the observed effects, the dosage, modes of administration and times of administration can be modified by the skilled clinician.
The particular choice of anticancer drug will depend upon the diagnosis of the attending physicians and their judgment of the condition of the patient and the appropriate treatment protocol.
A compound described and anticancer drug may be administered concurrently (e.g., simultaneously, essentially simultaneously or within the same treatment protocol) or sequentially, depending upon the nature of the cancer, the condition of the patient, and the actual choice of anticancer drug to be administered in conjunction (i.e., within a single treatment protocol) with a compound described herein.
If a compound described herein and the anticancer drug are not administered simultaneously or essentially simultaneously, then the optimum order of administration of the compound described herein and the anticancer drug, may be different for different cancers. Thus, in certain situations the compound described herein may be administered first followed by the administration of the anticancer drug; and in other situations the anticancer drug may be administered first followed by the administration of a compound described herein. This alternate administration may be repeated during a single treatment protocol. The determination of the order of administration, and the number of repetitions of administration of each therapeutic agent during a treatment protocol, is well within the knowledge of the skilled physician after evaluation of the disease being treated and the condition of the patient. For example, the anticancer drug may be administered first and then the treatment continued with the administration of a compound described herein followed, where determined advantageous, by the administration of the anticancer drug, and so on until the treatment protocol is complete.
Thus, in accordance with experience and knowledge, the practicing physician can modify each protocol for the administration of a component (compound described herein and the anticancer drug) of the treatment according to the individual patient's needs, as the treatment proceeds.
The disclosure is further illustrated by the following examples, which are not to be construed as limiting this disclosure in scope or spirit to the specific procedures herein described.
General mammalian cell culture
MCF-7 cells were cultured in Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10%heat inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS) , 100 U/mL Penicillin and 100 μg/mL Streptomycin. CSCs were produced by sorting a CD24low/CD44high subpopulation in MCF-7. CSCs were cultured in MammoCultTM Human Basal medium (STEMCELL technologies) supplemented with 10%MammoCultTM Proliferation Supplements (STEMCELL technologies) , 4 μg/mL Heparin, 0.48 μg/mL Hydrocortisone, 100 U/mL Penicillin and 100 μg/mL Streptomycin. Cells were maintained and cultured in a humidified 37℃ incubator with 5%CO2.
Determination of 50%inhibitory concentration (IC50) by MTS assay
25,000 CSCs were seeded in each well in a 96-well plate in 100 μL complete MammoCult medium containing increasing concentration of DOX from 0 to 150 μM (1: 3 dilution) , and increasing concentration of modulator from 0 to 1 μM (1: 3.5 dilution) , three replicas were included for each concentration. Cells were incubated in a humidified 37℃ incubator with 5%CO2 for 3 days. After incubation, cell viability was measured with Promega CellTiter 96 Aqueous assay according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Cells were added with 10 μL MTS/PMS solution and incubated at 37℃ for 90 min. The absorbance at 492 nm was recorded with a microplate absorbance reader. The IC50 was determined by Prism software using nonlinear regression dose-response cure analysis.
Pharmacokinetic study of Ac15 (Az2) 2
Ac15 (Az2) 2 was prepared at 5 mg/mL in 10% (v/v) NMP, 10% (v/v) Cremophor EL and 80%saline. Mice were fasted for 15 hours prior to receiving different doses of Ac15 (Az2) 2 (20, 40 or 80 mg/kg) by i.p. injection or 20 mg/kg by i.v. injection. At various time points (10, 15, 20, 40, 60, 90, 120, 240, 360 and 480-minute) , blood samples were collected in a heparinized Eppendorf tube via cardiac puncture. Blood samples were centrifuged at 14000 rpm for 10 min for the separation of blood plasma. Plasma sample collected was transferred to a new Eppendorf tube and stored at -20℃ until analysis.
Concentration of Ac15 (Az2) 2 in plasma was determined by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) . Into each sample, 20 μL of internal standard [Ac15 (Az8) 2, 500 ng/mL] was added following by adding of 400 μL acetonitrile (ACN) . The sample was vigorously  vortexed for 30 seconds and centrifuged at 14000 rpm for 10 min. Supernatant was collected and filtered with a 0.22 μm pore size nylon filter. Sample were transferred into glass vials with micro-volume inserts. 10 μL of each sample was injected into a liquid chromatography system by auto-sample separated by a BEH C18 column (2.1x50 mm, 1.7 μm; AcQuity UPLC, Waters) fitted with a BEH C18 guard column (2.1x5 mm, 1.7 μm; VanGuard, AcQuity UPLC, Waters) . The mobile phase was composed of MiliQ water (with 0.1%formic acid) (A) and ACN (with 0.1%formic acid) (B) . The flow rate of mobile phase was 0.3 mL/min. The gradient elution program was: 90%A/10%B at 0 min and 1 min, 15%A/85%B at 5 min and 7 min, 90%A/10%B at 9 min and 10 min. Effluent was detected by a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer. For data acquisition, the precursor ion of Ac15 (Az2) 2 (m/z 487.8) and Ac15 (Az8) 2 (m/z607.9) were allowed to pass from the first quadrupole (Q1) to the collision cell (Q2) . The precursor ions were fragmented under a collision energy of 35 eV and 15eV, respectively. The daughter ion of Ac15 (Az2) 2 (m/z 121.1) and Ac15 (Az8) 2 (m/z 149) were detected and recorded through the third quadrupole (Q3) . Analysis and quantification were performed using MassLynx Mass Spectrometry Software (Waters) .
Ac15 (Az2) 2 accumulation in tumours
Mice bearing MCF-7 xenograft were treated with different doses of Ac15 (Az2) 2 (40 or 80 mg/kg) by i.p. injection. At various time points (1, 2, 4, 6 and 8-hour) , tumour samples were collected after the sacrifice of the mice. Tumour samples can be stored at -20℃ until analysis. Upon analysis, tumours were weighed and homogenized with 3 times volume of water to give a tumour homogenate. 20 μL of internal standard [Ac15 (Az8) 2, 500 ng/mL) was added into each sample. After adding 400 μL ACN, samples were vigorously vortexed for 30 seconds and centrifuged at 14000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was analyzed after filtration. Concentration of Ac15 (Az2) 2 in tumours was determined by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) .
In vivo toxicity in Balb/c mice
Ac15 (Az2) 2 was prepared at 5 mg/mL in 10% (v/v) NMP, 10% (v/v) Cremophor EL and 80%saline. DOX was prepared at 0.24 mg/mL in saline. Twelve healthy Balb/c mice at 6-8-week-old were divided into three groups (n=4 per group) . The treatments are (1) 1.2 mg/kg DOX (i.v. ) , (2) 1.2 mg/kg DOX (i.v. ) + 60 mg/kg Ac15 (Az2) 2 (i.p. ) , and (3) 1.2 mg/kg DOX (i.v. ) + 80 mg/kg Ac15 (Az2) 2 (i.p. ) . The treatments were given every other day. Each group received 10 injections  from day 0 to day 18 (q. o. d. x10) . From day 0, all mice were monitored for toxicity symptoms including body weight loss, loss of appetite, slowness in activity and treatment-related mortality. A weight loss of more than 15%would be considered as a result of treatment-related toxicity. After the last treatment, animals were monitored for 2 more days to observe any toxicity response.
In vivo efficacy study of Ac15 (Az2) 2 combined with DOX in treating MCF-7 breast cancer xenograft model
Balb/c nude mice aged from 6 to 8 weeks old and weight from 14 to 20 grams were purchased and maintained in a germ-free environment with an unlimited supply of sterilized food and water with a 12-hour light/dark cycle. A 10 mm3 MCF-7 tumour piece originated from a tumour bulk was transplanted subcutaneously into Balb/c nude mouse after transplantation of a 17β-estradiol tablet (0.72 mg, 60-day release, Cat No. SE-121, Innovative Research of America, Sarasota, FL) under general anesthesia of ketamine (100 mg/kg) and xylazine (10 mg/kg) . When the tumour reached approximately 100 mm3 (21-28 days) , the mice were randomly assigned into different groups (n=7-8 mice per group) to receive different treatments (1) solvent control (NMP: Cremophor EL: saline=10: 10: 80) , (2) DOX (1 mg/kg i.v. ) , (3) Ac15 (Az2) 2 (80 mg/kg i.p. ) , and (4) DOX (1mg/kg i.v. ) + Ac15 (Az2) 2 (80 mg/kg i.p. ) once every 2 days for a total of 10 injections. From day 0, the tumour growth of all mice was monitored every 4 days by caliper. Estimated tumour volume (mm3) was calculated as 1/2 x length (mm) x width (mm) 2. The mouse body weights were recorded once every two days. At the same time, toxicity symptoms were also monitored during and after treatment. All mice were euthanized when all experiments were completed.
Localization of Ac13Az9 in CSCs using photocrosslinking probe and fluorescence microscopy
CSCs were pre-treated with DOX and Ac13Az9 for 24 hours. After treatment, cells were collected, washed and resuspended with PBS following by UV irradiation on ice at 365 nm for 10 mins. Cells were then collected and transferred to a 24-well plate containing a poly-L-lysine coated coverslip in each well. The plate was spined at 2500 rpm for 15 min at room temperature to ensure CSCs are attached to the coverslips. After fixing cells with 4%paraformaldehyde for 15 min at room temperature and permeabilization with 100%cold methanol for 20 min at -20℃, cells were washed with PBS and put into the click chemistry reaction. The click chemistry reaction contains 5 μM Alexa 647 fluorophore, 100 mM Tris, 2 mM CuSO4, 2 mM TBTA/THPTA, 10 mM  ascorbic acid and 50%DMSO. After incubating in the dark for 1hr at room temperature, cells were washed and stained with 5 μg/mL DAPI and read with a fluorescent microscope.
Identify the target of Ac13Az9 in CSCs using a photocrosslinking probe
Fresh cell lysate from 2x107 cells was harvested by incubate CSCs with NP-40 lysis buffer (1%NP-40/50 mM HEPES/PI) for 10 min on ice. Supernatant was collected after centrifugation at 14000 rpm for 10 min at 4℃. Ac13Az9 crosslinkers were added to the CSC lysate and incubated at 37℃ for 30 mins. After incubation, the lysate crosslinker mixture was irradiated at 365 nm for 10min on ice. To attach biotin or Alexa 647 to photo-crosslinked Ac13Az9 by click reaction, UV-irradiated cells lysate was incubated with 200 μM biotin azide (or 20μM Alexa 647 Azide) , 1%SDS, 10 mM ascorbic, 200 μM TBTA and 2 mM CuSO4 for 2 hours at room temperature. After the reaction, proteins clicked with Alexa 647 Azide can be separated on SDS-PAGE (10%) and viewed with Azure c600 for fluorescence detection. Proteins clicked with biotin azide can be separated on SDS-PAGE (10%) , and transferred onto a PVDF membrane. After incubation of Streptavidin-HRP overnight at 4℃ with shaking, signals could be developed using enhanced chemiluminescence reagent.
To pulldown target proteins, cells lysate coupled to biotin azide were precipitated by the addition of 4 volumes of ice-cold acetone and placed at -20℃ overnight. After centrifugation for 10 min at 4℃, the pellet was washed with ice-cold methanol three times. The protein pellet was air-dried for 10 min and then dissolved in 1%SDS with PBS by vortexing or sonication. The solution was then diluted with lysis buffer to a final concentration of 0.1%SDS and added to Streptavidin Sepharose. The solution was rotated overnight at 4℃ for the capture of biotinylated proteins. The Sepharose beads were then washed thoroughly three times with 2 M urea in TBS and eluted by incubating with 2%SDS at 95℃ for 5 min.
To visualize proteins with silver staining, SDS-PAGE gels were fixed for 30 min in 10%Acetic acid and 40%Methanol after separation. Gels were then washed thoroughly with distilled water, sensitized in 800 mM sodium acetate and 13 mM sodium thiosulphate in 30%methanol for 30mins. Gels were washed three times with distilled water to remove excess sensitizers. After stained with 0.25%silver nitrate for 20 min, gels were rinsed with water quickly and developed with 2.5%sodium carbonate with 0.04%formaldehyde. The reaction was stopped with 50 mM EDTA solution.
To identify protein targets of Ac13Az9, putative protein bands were cut and destained in a destaining solution (30 mM potassium ferricyanide and 100 mM sodium thiosulfate) and washed with 25 mM NH4HCO3 and ACN at 1: 1 (v/v) . Gel cubes were dehydrated in ACN then reacted with 10mM dithiothreitol (DTT) for 45 min at 56℃ and 100 mM iodoacetamide (IAA) for 30 min at room temperature in the dark. Gel cubes were washed again with 25 mM NH4HCO3 and ACN followed by dehydration in ACN and rehydration in 25 mM NH4HCO3. Protein cubes were then trypsinized at 37℃ overnight. The resulting peptides were extracted from gel cubes in Trifluoroacetic (TFA) and ACN and dried by SpeedVac and resuspended in 0.1%formic acid (FA) for LC-MS/MS analysis.
Generation of overexpression clones
PRDX1 overexpression plasmids were purchased from Addgene (pFRT/TO/HIS/FLAG/HA-PRDX1) . Mammalian expressed PRDX1 was produced by transient transfection into HEK293FT or MCF-7 cell line. HEK293FT and MCF-7 cells were grown in a 10cm dish and transfected at approximately 80%confluency with 7.5 μg PRDX1 plasmid and Lipofectamin 3000 (ThermoFisher) as per the manufacturer’s instructions. Transfected cells were harvested 6 days after transfection.
Detection of intracellular ROS level
Intracellular ROS was detected by means of an oxidation-sensitive cell-permeable fluorescent probe dye 2’7’-dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCF-DA, Ex/Em=495/529, Invitrogen Life Technologies) . CSCs were firstly trypsinized and incubated with the designated concentration of DOX, Ac13Az9 and Ac15 (Az2) 2 separately or in combination for indicated time. Then cells were added with 10 μM DCFDA at 37℃ for 1 hr in the dark. After that, cells were collected and resuspended in PBS and subjected to C6 flow cytometer (BD Accuri) analysis. DCF-DA was detected in the FL-1 channel.
Intracellular GSH and GSSG analysis
GSH was measured using a GSH/GSSG quantification assay kit (Beyotime, China) according to the manufacturer’s manual. The sulfhydryl group of GSH reacts with 5, 5’-dithiobis-2-nitrobenzoic acid (DTNB) and forms a yellow color 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid (TNB) which can be detected at the absorbance at 412 nm. The rate of TNB production is proportional to the  concentration of glutathione. Total glutathione was measured by first reducing GSSG to 2 GSH by glutathione reductase. The production of TNB reflects the total amount of both GSH and GSSG. To determine GSSG, sample was firstly treated with GSH removing reagent. The produced TNB reflects the GSSG remained. From above, the proportion GSH and GSSG can be calculated.
Intracellular NADPH and NADP+ analysis
NADPH was measured using a NADP+/NADPH quantification assay kit (Beyotime, China) according to the manufacturer’s manual. NADPH reduces WST-8 and produces yellow color formazan which can be detected at absorbance at 450 nm. To determine total NADPH/NADP+, NADP+ was firstly reduced to NADPH by incubating with glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) following by incubation with WST-8. To determine NADPH, samples are pretreated with heating at 60℃ for 30 min from which NADP+will be depleted. From above the proportion of NADPH/NADP+ can be calculated.
Protein extraction and Western Blotting
Cell lysate from different treatments was produced by RIPA lysis buffer supplemented with protease inhibitor (PI) (Roche) A small amount of cell lysate was used for determining protein concentration. Equal amount of protein from different cell lysates was separated 10%SDS-PAGE and then electroblotted to a PVDF (Millipore) at 120V for 90 min. The membranes were blocked with 5%non-fat milk in TBST (50 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl and 0.05%Tween 20) for 1 hour at room temperature with gentle shaking. The membrane was incubated with the corresponding antibody in TBST with 5%milk at 4℃ overnight with gentle shaking. After 3 washes by TBST, the membrane was incubated with goat anti-mouse IgG (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) or goat anti-rabbit IgG (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) conjugated with HRP in TBST in a dilution ratio of 1: 3000 at room temperature for 1.5 hours with gentle shaking. After 3 washes by TBST, the membrane was covered by SuperSignalTM West Pico Chemiluminescent Substrate (ThermoFisher) and the chemiluminescent signal was detected by Azure c600. The following antibodies were used: PRDX1 (Abcam, #ab41906) , PRDX2 (Abcam, #ab133481) , P53 (Santa Cruz, #sc-126) , P21 (Santa Cruz, #sc-6246) , phospho-P53 (Cell signaling, #9287) and β-actin (Santa Cruz, #sc-47778) .
Chemistry
All NMR spectra were recorded on a Bruker MHz DPX400 spectrometer at 400 MHz for 1H and 100 MHz for 13C or Varian Unity Inova 500 NB NMR Spectrometer at 500 MHz for 1H and 125 MHz for 13C. All NMR measurements were carried out at room temperature and the chemical shifts are reported as parts per million (ppm) in unit relative to the resonance of CDCl3 (7.26 ppm in the 1H, 77.0 ppm for the central line of the triplet in the 13C NMR) . Low-resolution and high-resolution mass spectra were obtained on a Micromass Q-TOF-2 by electron spray ionization (ESI) mode or on Finnigan MAT95 ST by electron ionization (EI) mode. The plates used for thin-layer chromatography (TLC) were E. Merck Silica Gel 60F254 (0.25-mm thickness) and they were visualized under short (254-nm) and long (365-nm) UV light. Chromatographic purifications were carried out using MN silica gel 60 (230-400 mesh) . All tested compounds were shown to >95%purity according to HPLC.
The compounds were synthesized using the general synthetic protocols outlined in Figures 20-26.
Characterization of Ac13Az9 XC1
Molecular Weight: 917.936. Exact Mass: 917.31329. m/z: 917.3133 (100.0%) , 918.3166 (53.0%) , 919.3200 (13.8%) , 918.3103 (3.3%) , 920.3234 (2.3%) , 919.3175 (2.1%) , 919.3137 (1.8%) , 920.3209 (1.1%)
1H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6) δ 8.19 –8.04 (m, 4H) , 8.00 (d, J = 8.6 Hz, 2H) , 7.88 (d, J = 8.8 Hz, 1H) , 7.83 –7.66 (m, 4H) , 7.55 (s, 1H) , 7.52 –7.26 (m, 5H) , 7.11 (d, J = 8.7 Hz, 2H) , 7.06 –6.93 (m, 2H) , 5.75 (s, 3H) , 5.06 (s, 2H) , 4.60 (s, 2H) , 4.53 (t, J = 5.2 Hz, 2H) , 4.28 –4.21 (m, 3H) , 4.15 (t, J = 4.6 Hz, 2H) , 4.06 (dq, J = 33.7, 6.7 Hz, 4H) , 3.80 (d, J = 4.7 Hz, 2H) , 3.72 (d, J = 4.8 Hz, 2H) , 3.37 (q, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H) .
Characterization of Ac13Az9 XC2
Molecular Weight: 982.00198. Exact Mass: 981.33336. m/z: 981.33336 (100.0%) , 982.33671 (59.5%) , 983.34007 (17.4%)
1H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.24 (dd, J = 8.1, 1.6 Hz, 1H) , 8.03 (d, J = 9.1 Hz, 1H) , 7.96 (d, J = 8.7 Hz, 2H) , 7.92 –7.79 (m, 3H) , 7.65 (t, J = 7.3 Hz, 1H) , 7.54 –7.32 (m, 4H) , 7.23 (t, J = 7.9 Hz, 1H) , 7.10 (d, J = 7.6 Hz, 1H) , 7.01 –6.91 (m, 5H) , 6.90 –6.84 (m, 2H) , 5.69 (s, 1H) , 5.56 (s, 1H) , 5.41 –5.27 (m, 2H) , 5.14 (s, 2H) , 5.09 (s, 2H) , 4.86 (s, 2H) , 4.56 (t, J = 4.9 Hz, 2H) , 4.30 –4.12 (m, 4H) , 3.96 (q, J = 5.6, 4.4 Hz, 2H) , 3.86 (dt, J = 19.0, 4.8 Hz, 4H) , 3.74 –3.62 (m, 4H) .
Characterization of Ac13Az9 XC3
Molecular Weight: 958.9223. Exact Mass: 958.2810. m/z: 958.2810 (100.0%) , 959.2843 (56.2%) , 960.2877 (15.5%) , 961.2910 (2.8%) , 960.2852 (2.7%) , 959.2780 (2.2%) , 961.2886 (1.5%) , 960.2814 (1.2%)
Characterization of Ac13Az9 XC4
Molecular Weight: 1016.0564 m/z: 1015.3640 (100.0%) , 1016.3673 (61.6%) , 1017.3707 (18.7%) , 1018.3741 (3.7%) , 1017.3682 (2.7%) , 1016.3610 (1.8%) , 1018.3716 (1.6%) , 1017.3644 (1.1%)
Characterization of Ac13Az9 XC5
Molecular Weight: 1002.9781. Exact Mass: 1002.3184. m/z: 1002.3184 (100.0%) , 1003.3218 (57.3%) , 1004.3251 (16.1%)
1H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) : δ 8.67 –8.60 (m, 1H) , 8.25 –8.18 (m, 1H) , 8.09 –8.02 (m, 1H) , 8.02 –7.98 (m, 1H) , 7.97 –7.93 (m, 1H) , 7.93 –7.75 (m, 5H) , 7.73 –7.65 (m, 1H) , 7.58 –7.50 (m, 1H) , 7.49 –7.37 (m, 4H) , 7.04 –6.83 (m, 4H) , 6.77 (s, 1H) , 4.79 (s, 2H) , 4.51 (t, J = 5.0 Hz, 2H) , 4.29 (t, J = 6.3 Hz, 2H) , 4.20 (t, J = 4.5 Hz, 2H) , 4.10 (t, J = 4.7 Hz, 2H) , 3.96 –3.88 (m, 2H) , 3.84 (t, J = 4.9 Hz, 2H) , 3.80 –3.73 (m, 2H) , 3.66 –3.53 (m, 4H) , 1.81 (t, J = 6.4 Hz, 2H) , 1.09 (s, 3H) .
Characterization of Ac13Az9 XC6
1H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.54 (d, J = 1.6 Hz, 1H) , 8.28 –8.19 (m, 1H) , 8.09 (d, J = 8.8 Hz, 1H) , 8.02 –7.92 (m, 2H) , 7.91 –7.86 (m, 4H) , 7.80 –7.66 (m, 2H) , 7.59 –7.37 (m, 5H) , 7.03 –6.88 (m, 4H) , 6.75 (s, 1H) , 5.34 (t, J = 4.8 Hz, 1H) , 4.84 –4.78 (m, 2H) , 4.74 (s, 2H) ,  4.52 (t, J = 5.0 Hz, 2H) , 4.30 (t, J = 6.2 Hz, 2H) , 4.26 –4.08 (m, 4H) , 3.92 (t, J = 4.6 Hz, 2H) , 3.85 (t, J = 5.0 Hz, 2H) , 3.78 (t, J = 4.7 Hz, 2H) , 3.70 –3.57 (m, 4H) , 2.06 –1.96 (m, 2H) , 1.81 (t, J = 6.3 Hz, 2H) , 1.10 (s, 3H) .
Characterization of Ac15 (Az2) 2 XC8
1H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-D6) : δ 8.02 (s, 2H) , 7.94 (d, J = 8.9 Hz, 4H) , 7.68 (t, J = 8.4 Hz, 2H) , 7.64 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 2H) , 7.31 –7.27 (m, 4H) , 7.03 (d, J = 7.9 Hz, 6H) , 6.72 (s, 2H) , 4.90 (d, J = 2.2 Hz, 4H) , 4.57 (s, 2H) , 4.50 (t, J = 5.1 Hz, 4H) , 4.36 (s, 2H) , 4.12 (s, 4H) , 3.81 (s, 4H) , 3.69 (s, 4H) , 3.59 (t, J = 2.3 Hz, 2H) , 3.54 (s, 8H) .
13C NMR (101 MHz, DMSO-D6) δ 176.81, 161.59, 160.74, 157.96, 157.11, 137.96, 134.33, 128.33, 126.94, 123.32, 115.38, 114.67, 111.47, 109.76, 107.28, 79.36, 79.14, 70.24, 70.04, 69.19, 67.89, 56.92, 49.90, 46.21.
Yield: 7.14%
Characterization of Ac15 (Az2) 2 XC9
1H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-D6) : δ 8.01 (s, 2H) , 7.95 (d, J = 8.4 Hz, 4H) , 7.68 (t, J = 8.4 Hz, 2H) , 7.46 (d, J = 7.9 Hz, 2H) , 7.30 (d, J = 8.3 Hz, 2H) , 7.16 (d, J = 7.8 Hz, 2H) , 7.04 (t, J =7.8 Hz, 6H) , 6.73 (s, 2H) , 4.91 (s, 4H) , 4.51 (t, J = 4.6 Hz, 4H) , 4.10 (s, 4H) , 3.81 (d, J = 4.7 Hz, 4H) , 3.68 (s, 4H) , 3.61 –3.58 (m, 4H) , 3.53 (s, 10H) .
13C NMR (151 MHz, DMSO-D6) δ 176.78, 169.81, 161.66, 160.74, 158.03, 157.20, 138.08, 134.33, 129.34, 128.42, 128.39, 127.01, 123.43, 115.44, 114.79, 111.54, 109.88, 107.39, 79.70, 79.43, 79.24, 70.31, 70.11, 69.27, 67.96, 57.04, 49.97, 46.20.
Yield: 7.64%

Claims (26)

  1. A method of reducing drug resistance of a cancer in a subject in need thereof to an anticancer drug, the method comprising: administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound to the subject, wherein the cancer overexpresses peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) and the compound has Formula 1:
    or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
    A is a bond or a moiety of Formula 2:
    m is a whole number selected from 1-3;
    n is a whole number selected from 1-3;
    p is a whole number selected from 0-4;
    R1 is a moiety of Formula 3 or Formula 4:
    R2 is a moiety of Formula 5:
    R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, - (CH2pPhR9, or -C (O) PhR9;
    each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2, -S (O) 2R, -S (O) 2N (R) 2, -N (R) S (O) 2R, -C≡CH, -CH2OCH2C≡CH, -OCH2C≡CH, -N (CH2C≡CH) 2, -C (O) OCH2C≡CH, -N3, -CH2N3
    R8 is hydrogen or a moiety of Formula 6:
    X is O or H2;
    R11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, or -N3; and
    R for each instance is independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or aralkyl.
  2. The method of claim 1, wherein m is 1 and n is 2; or m is 2 and n is 2.
  3. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -CH2OCH2C≡CH, -OCH2C≡CH, -N (CH2C≡CH) 2, -C (O) OCH2C≡CH, -N3, -CH2N3, and
  4. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R; and R11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, or -N (R) C (O) OR.
  5. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound has Formula 7:
    or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
    each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R;
    R11 is -C (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, or -N (R) C (O) OR.
  6. The method of claim 5, wherein each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, and -N (R) 2; and R11 is -C (O) OR.
  7. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound has Formula 8:
    or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
    each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R9 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R.
  8. The method of claim 7, wherein each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R9 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, and -N (R) 2.
  9. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of:


    and 
    pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.
  10. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

    and 
    pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.
  11. The method of any one of claim 1-10, wherein the anticancer drug is selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
  12. The method of any one of claims 1-11 further comprising co-administering an anticancer drug is selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
  13. The method of any one of claims 1-12, wherein the cancer is head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer, esophageal cancer, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, liver cancer, myeloma, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and bladder cancer.
  14. The method of any one of claims 1-12, wherein the cancer is breast cancer.
  15. A method of treating cancer in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising: co-administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound and a therapeutically effective amount of an anticancer drug to the subject, wherein the cancer overexpresses peroxiredoxin 1 (PRDX1) and the compound has Formula 1:
    or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
    A is a bond or a moiety of Formula 2:
    m is a whole number selected from 1-3;
    n is a whole number selected from 1-3;
    p is a whole number selected from 0-4;
    R1 is a moiety of Formula 3 or Formula 4:
    R2 is a moiety of Formula 5:
    R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, - (CH2pPhR9, or -C (O) PhR9;
    each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, perhaloalkoxyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, -N (R) C (O) OR, -OC (O) N (R) -, -OC (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) N (R) 2, -S (O) 2R, -S (O) 2N (R) 2, and -N (R) S (O) 2R;
    R8 hydrogen or a moiety of Formula 6:
    X is O or H2;
    R11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, or -N (R) C (O) OR; and R for each instance is independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or aralkyl.
  16. The method of claim 15, wherein m is 1 and n is 2; or m is 2 and n is 2.
  17. The method of claim 15 or 16, wherein each of R4, R5, R6, R7, R9, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R; and R11 is hydrogen, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, -OC (O) R, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, or -N (R) C (O) OR.
  18. The method of claim 15, wherein the compound has Formula 7:
    or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
    each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R;
    R11 is -C (O) OR, -N (R) C (O) R, -C (O) N (R) 2, or -N (R) C (O) OR.
  19. The method of claim 18, wherein each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R10 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, and -N (R) 2; and R11 is -C (O) OR.
  20. The method of claim 15, wherein the compound has Formula 8:
    or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:
    each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R9 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, -SR, -N (R) 2, -C (O) R, -C (O) OR, and -OC (O) R.
  21. The method of claim 20, wherein each of R4, R5, R6, R7, and R9 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, nitrile, nitro, -OR, and -N (R) 2.
  22. The method of claim 15, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

    and 
    pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.
  23. The method of any one of claim 15-22, wherein the anticancer drug is selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, daunorubicin, vincristine, cisplatin, paclitaxel, mitoxantrone, and combinations thereof.
  24. The method of any one of claim 15-23, wherein the cancer is breast cancer, lung cancer, colorectal cancer, ovarian cancer, gastric cancer, prostate cancer, pancreatic cancer and liver cancer.
  25. The method of any one of claim 15-23, wherein the cancer is breast cancer.
  26. The method of claim 24 or 25, wherein the anticancer drug is doxorubicin.
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