WO2024221095A1

WO2024221095A1 - Systems and methods for pyrolysis with indirect heating

Info

Publication number: WO2024221095A1
Application number: PCT/CA2024/050549
Authority: WO
Inventors: Lynn P. Tessier; Michal M. Okoniewski; Jorgen S. Nielsen; Damir Pasalic
Original assignee: Acceleware Ltd
Current assignee: Acceleware Ltd
Priority date: 2023-04-28
Filing date: 2024-04-25
Publication date: 2024-10-31
Anticipated expiration: 2025-10-28

Abstract

Systems and methods for pyrolysis are disclosed. The system includes a reactor having one or more reaction chambers, at least one heating component coupled to the one or more reaction chambers, and at least one electrical generator operable to power the at least one heating component. Each of the one or more reaction chambers can be configured to receive a feedstock into the reaction chamber. The feedstock can include a hydrogen compound. The reactor can be configured to convert at least a portion of the feedstock to hydrogen gas via a pyrolysis reaction. The at least one heating component can be operable to provide heat to the one or more reaction chambers to indirectly heat the feedstock to promote the pyrolysis reaction.

Description

Title: Systems and Methods for Pyrolysis with Indirect Heating

Cross-Reference to Related Applications

[1] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/462,865 filed April 28, 2023 and titled “Systems and Methods of Extracting Hydrogen By Pyrolysis with Indirect Heating”, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes.

Field

[2] The described embodiments relate generally to systems and methods for pyrolysis, and in particular, systems and methods for pyrolysis with indirect heating.

Background

[3] There is a growing public interest in hydrogen as a clean energy source. Hydrogen is commonly produced from natural gas via steam-methane reforming. However, such methods also produce carbon dioxide (CO2), which is not desirable.

[4] Pyrolysis, or the thermochemical decomposition of materials such as but not limited to hydrocarbons or ammonia offers potential for generating hydrogen because it can be performed more efficiently than electrolysis. In some pyrolytic processes, hydrogen can be produced from the decomposition of methane. Such pyrolytic processes generally emit few greenhouse gases (GHGs) because the reaction from methane to hydrogen yields solid carbon and, notably, does not produce carbon dioxide (CO2). Pyrolysis of ammonia may also be of interest, as ammonia is considered as a means to store hydrogen for transportation and needs to be decomposed at the destination. In such cases, the reaction produces H2 and N2 molecules.

Summary

[5] This summary is intended to introduce the reader to the more detailed description that follows and not to limit or define any claimed or as yet unclaimed invention. One or more inventions may reside in any combination or sub-combination of the elements or process steps disclosed in any part of this document including its claims and figures. [6] The various embodiments described herein generally relate to pyrolysis systems with indirect heating and related methods.

[7] In accordance with an aspect of this disclosure, there is provided a system for producing hydrogen gas. The system includes a reactor having one or more reaction chambers, at least one heating component coupled to the one or more reaction chambers, and at least one electrical generator operable to power the at least one heating component. Each of the one or more reaction chambers are configured to receive a feedstock into the reaction chamber. The feedstock includes a hydrogen compound. The reactor is configured to convert at least a portion of the feedstock to hydrogen gas via a pyrolysis reaction. The at least one heating component is operable to provide heat to the one or more reaction chambers to indirectly heat the feedstock.

[8] In some embodiments, the at least one heating component being operable to provide heat to the one or more reaction chambers can include the at least one heating component being operable to heat the one or more reaction chambers; and the one or more heated reaction chambers can heat the feedstock via one or more of thermal conduction or infrared radiation.

[9] In some embodiments, the at least one heating component operable to provide heat to the one or more reaction chambers can include the at least one heating component being operable to heat a media within the one or more reaction chambers; and the heated media heating the feedstock via one or more of thermal conduction or infrared radiation.

[10] In some embodiments, the one or more reaction chambers can include a plurality of reaction tubes.

[11] In some embodiments, the plurality of reaction tubes can include a plurality of sets of reaction tubes; and the at least one heating component can include one or more heating components for each set of reaction tubes.

[12] In some embodiments, one or more reaction tubes of the plurality of reaction tubes can include at least one neck portion having a narrower diameter than non-neck portions of the one or more reaction tubes. The narrower diameter of the at least one neck portion can cause the pyrolysis reaction within the non-neck portion upstream of the at least one neck portion to accelerate and the pyrolysis reaction within the non-neck portion downstream of the at least one neck portion to decelerate.

[13] In some embodiments, the reaction tube can include an insulation element at the at least one neck portion. [14] In some embodiments, the at least one heating component can be coupled to the non-neck portions of the one or more reaction tubes.

[15] In some embodiments, the at least one heating component can include at least one solenoid coil operable to induce a surface current on the plurality of reaction tubes.

[16] In some embodiments, the at least one solenoid coil can include a plurality of coil portions, the plurality of coil portions comprising at least a first coil portion and a second coil portion.

[17] In some embodiments, the second coil portion can have one or more of a different coil pitch or a different winding density than the first coil portion.

[18] In some embodiments, at least one electrical generator can include a plurality of electrical generators, the second coil portion being powered by a different electrical generator of the plurality of electrical generators than that of the first coil portion.

[19] In some embodiments, at least the first coil portion and the second coil portion can be connected in parallel to the at least one electrical generator.

[20] In some embodiments, one or more reaction tubes of the plurality of reaction tubes can include an inlet portion and an outlet portion. A portion of the solenoid coil at the inlet portion can have one or more of a higher coil pitch or a higher winding density than a portion of the solenoid coil at the outlet portion.

[21] In some embodiments, the solenoid coil can include a tube and coolant therein the tube.

[22] In some embodiments, the coolant can include the feedstock. The feedstock can be preheated by the solenoid coil prior to injection into the reaction chamber.

[23] In some embodiments, the solenoid coil can be formed of a refractory metal or alloy operable at high temperatures.

[24] In some embodiments, the system can further include at least one insulation layer covering the plurality of reaction tubes.

[25] In some embodiments, the at least one insulation layer can further cover the at least one heating component.

[26] In some embodiments, a plurality of holes can be defined through the at least one insulation layer for coupling one or more sensors to the plurality of reaction tubes. [27] In some embodiments, the one or more reaction chambers can include a material capable of dissipating electromagnetic energy.

[28] In some embodiments, the material capable of dissipating electromagnetic energy can form at least one jacket covering the one or more reaction chambers.

[29] In some embodiments, the material capable of dissipating electromagnetic energy can be embedded within sidewalls of the one or more reaction chambers.

[30] In some embodiments, the media within the one or more reaction chambers can include the material capable of dissipating electromagnetic energy.

[31] In some embodiments, the one or more reaction chambers can include a hard coating on an inner surface of the one or more reaction chambers.

[32] In some embodiments, the reactor can be a circulating bed reactor including one or more inner tubes within the one or more reaction chambers; and the at least one heating component can include an inner tube of the one or more inner tubes.

[33] In some embodiments, at least one electrical generator can be coupled to the inner tube and the reaction chamber.

[34] In some embodiments, the one or more inner tubes within the one or more reaction chambers can include at least a first and a second inner tube. The second inner tube can be coaxial with the first inner tube along at least a portion of the first inner tube. The at least one heating component can include the first inner tube and the second inner tube.

[35] In some embodiments, the one or more reaction chambers can further include at least one heat exchanger operable to transfer heat from hydrogen gas generated by the pyrolysis reaction to the feedstock prior to injection into the reaction chamber.

[36] In some embodiments, the at least one heat exchanger can include a counter flow heat exchanger.

[37] In some embodiments, one or more reaction chambers can include at least one skimmer operable to remove a portion of media from within the reaction chamber. At least some of the removed media can include carbon particles produced from the pyrolysis reaction. [38] In some embodiments, the one or more reaction chambers can include a body with a plurality of channels formed therein.

[39] In some embodiments, the plurality of channels can be formed vertically within the body.

[40] In some embodiments, the body can be formed of an electrically lossy material.

[41] In some embodiments, the at least one heating component can include a plurality of electrodes.

[42] In some embodiments, the plurality of electrodes can be positioned on an outer surface of the body.

[43] In some embodiments, the plurality of electrodes can be embedded within the body.

[44] In some embodiments, the plurality of electrodes can be electrically insulated to provide a capacitive coupling.

[45] In some embodiments, the system can further include a cleaning device to remove carbon particles from an inner surface of the channels, the carbon particles being produced from the pyrolysis reaction.

[46] In some embodiments, the cleaning device can include at least one cleaning rod insertable in the channels.

[47] In some embodiments, the cleaning device can be configured to inject a cleaning substance through the channels.

[48] In some embodiments, the system can further include at least one sensor configured to capture operating data representative of the pyrolysis reaction within the one or more reaction chambers; and at least one processor configured to control a heating profile of the reactor based on the operating data.

[49] In some embodiments, the at least one processor being configured to control the heating profile of the reactor can include the at least one processor being configured to apply a machine-learning model to identify control parameters that optimize one or more of an energy usage per unit of the pyrolytic product produced, pyrolytic product production, maintenance duration, maintenance frequency, feedstock conversion, or any combination thereof.

[50] In some embodiments, the at least one processor being configured to control the heating profile of the reactor can include the at least one processor being configured to control one or more of the at least one electrical generator, the at least one heating component, injection of the feedstock, or extraction of carbon particles based on the operating data.

[51] In some embodiments, the at least one processor being configured to control injection of the feedstock can include the at least one processor being configured to adjust one or more of a composition, a volume, a flow, a pressure, or a temperature of the feedstock.

[52] In some embodiments, the at least one sensor can include a plurality of optical sensors around the reaction chamber.

[53] In some embodiments, the feedstock can include one or more of ammonia or a hydrocarbon gas.

[54] In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon gas can include one or more of methane, natural gas, or a hydrocarbon gas derived from biomass.

[55] In some embodiments, the at least one electrical generator can include one or more of a radio frequency (RF) generator, an alternating current (AC) generator, a microwave generator, or a millimeter wave generator.

[56] In accordance with another aspect of this disclosure, there is method of producing hydrogen gas. The method involves injecting a feedstock into a reactor, the feedstock including a hydrogen compound, the reactor including one or more reaction chambers, the reactor being configured to convert at least a portion of the feedstock to hydrogen gas via a pyrolysis reaction. The method further involves providing heat to the one or more reaction chambers to indirectly heat the feedstock for the pyrolysis reaction; and adjusting the heat provided to the one or more reaction chambers to sustain the pyrolysis reaction.

[57] In some embodiments, the method can involve heating the one or more reaction chambers; and using the one or more heated reaction chambers to heat the feedstock via one or more of thermal conduction or infrared radiation.

[58] In some embodiments, the method can involve heating a media within the one or more reaction chambers; and using the heated media to heat the feedstock via one or more of thermal conduction or infrared radiation.

[59] In some embodiments, the one or more reaction chambers can include at least a first set of reaction chambers and a second set of reaction chambers; and the method can involve heating the first set of reaction chambers of the plurality of reaction chambers independently of heating the second set of reaction chambers of the plurality of reaction chambers. [60] In some embodiments, the method can involve inducing a surface current on the one or more reaction chambers.

[61] In some embodiments, the method can further involve capturing operating data representative of the pyrolysis reaction within the one or more reaction chambers; and controlling a heating profile of the one or more reaction chambers based on the operating data.

[62] In some embodiments, the method can further involve one or more of: controlling injection of the feedstock based on the operating data; adjusting the heat provided to the one or more reaction chambers by at least one heating component and at least one electrical generator; or controlling extraction of carbon particles produced from the pyrolysis reaction.

[63] In some embodiments, controlling injection of the feedstock can involve adjusting one or more of a composition, a volume, a flow, a pressure, or a temperature of the feedstock.

[64] In some embodiments, the feedstock can include one or more of ammonia or a hydrocarbon gas.

[65] In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon gas can include one or more of methane, natural gas, or a hydrocarbon gas derived from biomass.

[66] In some embodiments, the method can further involve preheating the feedstock prior to injection into the reactor.

[67] In some embodiments, preheating the feedstock can involve using heat from hydrogen gas generated by the pyrolysis reaction.

[68] In some embodiments, the method can further involve cooling at least one heating component operable to provide heat to the one or more reaction chambers.

[69] In some embodiments, the method can further involve skimming a portion of media from within the reaction chamber, at least some of the skimmed media can include carbon particles being produced from the pyrolysis reaction.

[70] In some embodiments, the method can further involve cleaning carbon particles from an inner surface of the one or more reaction chambers, the carbon particles can be produced from the pyrolysis reaction.

[71] In some embodiments, cleaning carbon particles from an inner surface of the one or more reaction chambers can involve injecting a cleaning substance in the one or more reaction chambers. Brief Description of the Drawings

[72] Several embodiments will now be described in detail with reference to the drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of example components of an example system for pyrolysis with indirect heat, in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 2 is an illustration of an example reactor for the system of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 3 is an illustration of another example reactor for the system of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 4 is an illustration of another example reactor for the system of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 5 is an illustration of an example reaction chamber for the system of FIG.

1 , in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 6 is an illustration of another example reaction chamber for the system of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 7 is an illustration of another example reaction chamber for the system of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 8 is an illustration of an example reaction tube for the reactor of FIG. 2, in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 9 is an illustration of another example reaction tube for the reactor of FIG.

2, in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 10 is an illustration of another example reaction tube for the reactor of FIG. 2, in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 11 is an illustration of another example reaction tube for the reactor of FIG. 2, in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 12A is an illustration of another example reaction tube for the reactor of FIG. 2, in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 12B is an example temperature profile of the reaction tube of FIG. 12A, in accordance with an example embodiment; FIG. 13 is an illustration of another example reaction tube for the reactor of FIG. 2, in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 14 is an illustration of another example reaction tube for the reactor of FIG. 2, in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 15 is an illustration of another example reaction tube for the reactor of FIG. 2, in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 16 is an illustration of another example reactor for the system of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 17 is an illustration of another example reactor for the system of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 18 is an illustration of another example reactor for the system of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 19A is an illustration of an example filter assembly for the system of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 19B is an illustration of an example duplex filter assembly for the system of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 20A is an illustration of another example reactor for the system of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment;

FIG. 20B is an illustration of a cross-sectional view taken along line A-A in FIG. 20A;

FIG. 21 is an illustration of another example reactor for the system of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment; and

FIG. 22 is a flowchart of an example method for pyrolysis with indirect heating, in accordance with an example embodiment.

[73] The drawings, described below, are provided for purposes of illustration, and not of limitation, of the aspects and features of various examples of embodiments described herein. For simplicity and clarity of illustration, elements shown in the drawings have not necessarily been drawn to scale. The dimensions of some of the elements may be exaggerated relative to other elements for clarity. It will be appreciated that for simplicity and clarity of illustration, where considered appropriate, reference numerals may be repeated among the drawings to indicate corresponding or analogous elements or steps.

Description of Example Embodiments

[74] Pyrolysis involves a thermochemical decomposition that can occur at temperatures typically ranging between about 300°C and 1400°C,or higher. Thus, pyrolysis can generally be energetically expensive and pyrolytic reactors can require significant energy. For example, methane decomposition is highly endothermic with an overall enthalpy of 74.8 kJ/mol at equilibrium. A significant obstacle of methane decomposition is the high activation energy (312 to 450 kJ/mol) of the reaction.

[75] For example, dry methane reformation (DRM) is an endothermic reaction. With DRM, carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CFk) can react to produce carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2), as represented in Equation 1 :

CO2 + CH4 — >2 CO + 2 H2 (Equation 1 )

[76] DRM is of interest because carbon dioxide (CO2) can serve as the feedstock and the pyrolytic process produces gaseous pyrolytic products, such as hydrogen (H2), that can be used for various applications. For example, hydrogen can be used for the production of synthetic diesel (6 CO+13 H2 — >2 CeH-u + 6 H2O), methanol (CO+2 H2 CH3OH), and others.

[77] Due to the endothermic nature of methane pyrolysis, reaction temperature is important for methane conversion and reaction kinetics. The higher the reaction temperature, the higher the reaction rates and the higher the methane conversion to hydrogen gas and carbon. Further, based on to Le Chatelier's principle, the reaction equilibrium will be shifted to the product side and promote methane conversion at low pressure as there is more hydrogen gas than methane in the reaction.

[78] Catalysts can be beneficial for pyrolytic processes. For example, some catalysts can lower the reaction temperature and thus, lower the energy required for the pyrolysis. Catalysts are commonly used in pyrolysis to lower the reaction temperature down to a range of 600°C to 900°C as the catalysts decrease the reaction's activation energy.

[79] However, catalytic material itself can be expensive, particularly metallic catalysts. Although some catalytic material such as carbon is less expensive, their effectiveness may also be lower. As well, catalysts can become deactivated (i.e., “spent”) in the reaction process and thus, be used up (i.e., spent or consumed). Although deactivated catalysts can be recycled, such recycling processes can also be expensive and energy inefficient. Furthermore, a continuous feed of fresh catalytic material can also be expensive, particularly when the catalytic material itself is expensive.

[80] Molten metal bubble reactors can use molten material, including catalytic material, as a heat transfer agent. However, molten metal bubble reactors can be difficult to scale commercially. It is challenging to heating a large volume of molten material to the reaction temperature while maintaining an even temperature distribution throughout the reactor volume. As well as, it is difficult to feed a sufficient amount of feedstock into the reactor for the process to be economically viable.

[81] Disclosed herein are systems and methods for pyrolysis with indirect heating to promote pyrolysis. With indirect heating to promote pyrolysis, the need for catalysts can be reduced. Furthermore, the disclosed systems and methods can provide more controllable and spatially distributed heat.

[82] For example, the disclosed systems and methods can involve injecting a feedstock into a reactor, the feedstock including a hydrogen compound, the reactor including one or more reaction chambers, and the reactor being configured to convert at least a portion of the feedstock to hydrogen gas via a pyrolysis reaction . The method can further involve providing heat to the one or more reaction chambers to indirectly heat the feedstock for the pyrolysis reaction and adjusting the heat provided to the one or more reaction chambers to sustain the pyrolysis reaction. In some embodiments, providing heat to feedstock indirectly can involve heating media that fill the reaction chambers. In some embodiments, providing heat to feedstock indirectly can involve heating the body of the reaction chambers within which pyrolysis takes place. In some embodiments, providing heat to feedstock indirectly can involve use of heating components that form part of the reaction chambers.

[83] Referring now to FIG. 1 , shown therein is a block diagram illustrating example components of an example system 100. To assist with the description of system 100, reference will be made simultaneously to FIG. 2 to FIG. 7.

[84] The system 100 can include a reactor 102, at least one heating component 120, and at least one electrical generator 130. Although only one heating component 120 and only one electrical generator 130 are shown in FIG. 1 , the system 100 can include additional heating components 120 and electrical generators 130. [85] The reactor 102 can include one or more reaction chambers 110 configured to receive a feedstock 104 (i.e., reactant) into the reaction chambers 110. The reactor 102 can be configured to convert at least a portion of the feedstock 104 to hydrogen gas via a pyrolysis reaction. The pyrolysis reaction can take place in the reaction chamber 110. Although only one reaction chamber 110 is shown in FIG. 1 , the reactor 102 can include additional reaction chambers 110.

[86] The system 100 can be directed to pyrolysis of various feedstock 104 to produce pyrolytic products 106. In some embodiments, the system 100 can be directed to pyrolysis of a hydrocarbon compound, such as but not limited to methane, natural gas, or carbon dioxide. That is, the feedstock 104 can be a hydrocarbon gas. Furthermore, the hydrocarbon gas can be derived from biomass.

[87] In some embodiments, the system 100 can be directed to pyrolysis of ammonia. Similar to the pyrolysis of methane, the pyrolysis of ammonia can produce hydrogen. That is, the feedstock 104 can be ammonia. Meanwhile, the pyrolysis of carbon dioxide can be performed in order to break the carbon-oxygen bonds of carbon dioxide, thereby producing carbon and oxygen.

[88] In some embodiments, the system 100 can include one or more mixers (not shown in FIG. 1) coupled upstream of the reaction chamber 110. The mixer can operate to adjust the composition of the feedstock 104. For example, the mixer can mix an inert gas into the gaseous feedstock 104. The inert gas can be added to improve reaction dynamics. For example, argon can be added to the gaseous feedstock 104 because argon can improve the reaction dynamics for some reactions, in accordance with Le Chatelier’s principle.

[89] In some embodiments, the pyrolytic products 106 can include gaseous products and solid products. For example, carbon can be a solid pyrolytic product of the pyrolytic reaction. Carbon produced from the pyrolytic reaction can be in different forms, including but not limited to carbon black or graphite, which has significant commercial value. In some embodiments, carbon produced from the pyrolytic reaction can be converted to graphite. In another example, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, acetylene, and/or an inert gas can be a gaseous pyrolytic product of the pyrolytic reaction. In some embodiments, the pyrolysis can produce graphite. In some embodiments, the carbon produced from the pyrolytic reaction can be converted into graphite within the system 100. [90] As shown in FIG. 1 , the heating component 120 is coupled to the reaction chamber 110. The heating component 120 is operable to provide heat to the reaction chamber 110 to indirectly heat the feedstock 104. When the surface of the reaction chambers 110 are heated, the feedstock 104 flowing through the reaction chambers 110 are heated, causing pyrolysis to occur. The heating component 120 can be any type of indirect heating element that can provide heat to the interior of the reaction chamber 110 including, but not limited to, inductive heating elements (e.g., inductive heating coils), resistive heating elements (e.g., resistive heating coils) and capacitive heating elements (e.g., electrodes) or a combination of two or more of these.

[91] The electrical generator 130 is operable to power the heating component 120. The electrical generator 130 can be any type of controllable electrical generator that can cause heating components 120 to produce heat. The electrical generator 130 can be one or more of a DC power source, a low frequency power source, a radio frequency (RF) generator, a high frequency RF source, an alternating current (AC) generator, a microwave generator, or a millimeter wave generator. The type of electrical generator 130 used can vary depending on the type of heating components 120 used. For example, high frequency power sources can be more effective for heating components 120 that are inductive heating elements. The parameters of the electrical generator 130 can be tunable to control the operation of the heating components 120. For example, the frequency, the voltage, current and/or phases of the electrical generator 130 can be variable.

[92] In some embodiments, the heating component 120 being operable to provide heat to the reaction chamber 110 can involve heating the reaction chamber 110 itself via thermal conduction, infrared radiation, or both thermal conduction and infrared radiation. In some embodiments, the heating component 120 being operable to provide heat to the reaction chamber 110 can involve heating a media within the reaction chamber 110 via thermal conduction, infrared radiation, or both thermal conduction and infrared radiation. In some embodiments, the heating component 120 being operable to provide heat to the reaction chamber 110 can involve heating both the reaction chamber 110 and media within the reaction chamber 110.

[93] In some embodiments, the system 100 can include sensor(s) (not shown in FIG. 1) that measure operational variables of the system 100. For example, the sensor(s) can include but are not limited to a temperature sensor such as a thermocouple temperature sensor (e.g., Type C thermocouples), blackbody radiation sensors for measuring the temperature of the reaction chamber 110, flow rate sensors for measuring the flow rate of the feedstock 104 or the flow rate of the pyrolytic products 106, a gas analyzer to analyze the input and output gases of the reaction chamber 110, and a current and/or voltage sensor for measuring the current and/or voltage of the electrical generator 130. In some embodiments, the system 100 can include sensors for monitoring the build-up of solid carbon deposits and carbon particles in the gas flow within the reaction chambers 110 to monitor and control the process of carbon extraction. For example, in some cases a specific composition or a range of composition of hydrocarbon gases and carbon particles flowing through the reaction chamber 110 can be desired. In such cases, measurements from sensor(s) measuring the composition of the gas flowing through the reaction chambers 110 can be used to adjust the composition of the gases to the desired levels. Additional sensors can be used to measure other parameters that affect the efficiency of the pyrolysis process.

[94] The measured operational variables can be used to adjust the operation of the electrical generator 130 and/or the flow rate of the feedstock 104. For example, based on the measured temperature, it can be determined that the electrical generator 130 is producing insufficient heat. As another example, the current and/or voltage output by the electrical generator 130 can be used to vary the current, voltage, and/or frequency of the electrical generator 130. The sensors can be placed on or within each reaction chamber 110 and the electrical generator 130 can be varied according to the desired operation of each reaction chamber 110 and to improve the efficiency of the electrical generator 130.

[95] In some embodiments, the system 100 can include a control system (not shown in FIG. 1 ). The control system can operate to control and/or monitor the operation of the system 100. The control system can control injection of the feedstock 104. For example, the control system can adjust one or more of a composition, a volume, a flow, a pressure, or a temperature of the feedstock 104.

[96] The control system can control operation of the heating component 120 and/or the electrical generator 130 to indirectly heat the feedstock 104 to promote and sustain the pyrolysis reaction. In some embodiments, control of the feedstock 104 injection, the heating component 120, and/or the electrical generator 130 can be based on data captured from the reaction chamber 110. For example, sensors can be provided around the reaction chamber 110 to capture data representative of the pyrolysis reaction within the reaction chamber 110, such as the heating profile of the reaction chamber 110. By controlling the feedstock 104 injection, the heating component 120, and/or the electrical generator 130, the pyrolysis reaction can be controlled.

[97] In some embodiments, the control system can control extraction of particles 106 produced from the pyrolysis reaction. For example, the control system can control the flow of feedstock 104 through the reaction chamber 110 and/or operation of outlets and/or discharge valves that extract or allow pyrolytic products 106 to be extracted from the reaction chamber 110.

[98] The control system can include control interfaces, including but not limited to temperature sensors, flow sensors, motion sensors, gas analyzers, that allow the system 100 to be configured. In some embodiments, the control system can select control parameters for the system 100, such as the control parameters for the feedstock 104 injection, the reaction chamber 110, the heating component 120 and the electrical generator 130. In some embodiments, the control parameters can be determined by the control system. For example, the control system can include artificial intelligence. In some embodiments, the control system can learn and optimize the reactor 102 over time with respect to some variables, such as but not limited to, energy usage per unit of the pyrolytic product produced, pyrolytic product production (e.g., hydrogen production), maintenance duration, maintenance frequency, feedstock conversion, or any combination thereof to achieve an desired outcome.

[99] The control system can include a processor, a storage component, and/or a communication component. The processor can control the operation of the control system. The processor can include any suitable processors, controllers, digital signal processors, graphics processing units, application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), microcontrollers, and/or other suitably programmed or programmable logic circuits that can provide sufficient processing power depending on the configuration, purposes and requirements of the control system. In some embodiments, the processor can include more than one processor with each processor being configured to perform different dedicated tasks.

[100] The storage component can include RAM, ROM, one or more hard drives, one or more flash drives or some other suitable data storage elements such as disk drives. For example, the storage component can include volatile and non-volatile memory. Non-volatile memory can store computer programs consisting of computerexecutable instructions, which can be loaded into the volatile memory for execution by the processor. Operating the processor to carry out a function can involve executing instructions (e.g., a software program) that can be stored in the storage component and/or transmitting or receiving inputs and outputs via the communication component. The storage component can also store data input to, or output from, the processor, which can result from the course of executing the computer-executable instructions for example.

[101] The storage component can include one or more databases for storing data related to the system 100. The storage component can store data in respect of the operation of the system 100, such as data in respect of the feedstock 104 injection, the reaction chamber 110, the heating component 120, and the electrical generator 130.

[102] The communication component can include any interface that enables the control system to communicate with various devices and other systems. For example, the communication component can facilitate communication with the other components of the system 100, such as the heating component 120, the electrical generator 130, a system storage component, or instrumentation and control devices via the communication network.

[103] In some embodiments, one or more computing devices can communicate with the system 100 via the communication network. A user may electronically configure the system 100 using the computing device. The computing device can include any device capable of communication with other devices through a network such as the communication network. The computing device can include a processor and memory, and may be an electronic tablet device, a personal computer, workstation, server, portable computer, mobile device, personal digital assistant, laptop, smart phone, Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) phone, and portable electronic devices or any combination of these.

[104] Referring now to FIG. 2, shown therein is an illustration 200 of an example reactor 202 for the system 100 of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment. The reactor 202 can include reaction chambers 210A, 210B, 210C (collectively referred to as reaction chambers 210), heating components 220A, 220B, 220C (collectively referred to as heating components 220), and an electrical generator 230. Although FIG. 2 shows the reactor 202 including three reaction chambers 210, fewer or more reaction chambers 210 can be included.

[105] The pyrolysis reaction can occur in each of the reaction chambers 210. Heating components 220 can provide heat to the reaction chambers 210. The heating components 220 can be coupled to the reaction chambers 210 as shown. Although FIG. 2 shows three heating components 220 and one electrical generator 230, fewer or more heating components 220 and additional electrical generators 230 can be included. Furthermore, although one heating component 220 is coupled to each reaction chamber 210, one or more heating components 220 can be coupled to additional reaction chambers 210 and/or additional heating components 220 can be coupled to one or more reaction chambers 210. For example, the reaction chambers 210 can be arranged in a plurality of sets, groups or bundles. One or more heating components 220 can be coupled to each set of reaction chambers 210.

[106] The reactor 202 of FIG. 2 is shown for illustrative purposes. Other configurations are possible. For example, heating components 220 are shown as being located outside of the reaction chambers 210 in FIG. 2. In some embodiments, the heating components 220 can be located within the reaction chambers 210.

[107] As shown in FIG. 2, reaction chambers 210 can have a body that is tubular. That is, the reaction chambers 210 can be reaction tubes. Each of the reaction tubes 210 can be oriented along the same axis, in parallel, to guide the flow of feedstock 104 and pyrolytic products 106 of the pyrolysis reaction therein in the same direction amongst the reaction chambers 210. As shown in FIG. 2, the reaction tubes 210 can have a uniform diameter along the length of the reaction tubes 210. For example, in some embodiments, the uniform diameter can approximately 2.5 centimeters. In some embodiments, such as that shown in FIG. 15, one or more reaction tubes 210 can have a variable diameter along the length of the reaction tube 210.

[108] The reaction chambers 210 can be formed of a material that can withstand high temperatures (e.g., up to 2300°C). Furthermore, the material can dissipate electromagnetic energy. For example, the material can be heated inductively or have a high electrical conductivity such that when the electrical generator 230 is an RF generator, the skin depth at the range of operating frequencies allows for effective heat generation throughout the walls of the reaction chambers 210, either through magnetic, dielectric, or ohmic heating. For example, the reaction chambers 210 can be formed of graphite, carbon black, and activated carbon with different particle sizes. The range of conductivity of graphite allows it to be heated by low frequency RF fields. Furthermore, graphite has high thermal robustness and can be used up to 2500°C in an inert atmosphere. Some materials that cannot be heated capacitively at low frequency RF fields can instead be heated through direct contact with electrodes, such as in a coaxial arrangement.

[109] To increase the electrical conductivity of the reaction chambers 210, conductive materials such as metal particles, alloys, intermetallic compounds, conductive ceramics, etc. can be mixed into the primary material used to form the reaction chambers 210. That is, material capable of dissipating electromagnetic energy can be embedded within primary material forming the reaction chambers 210. The material(s) selected can depend on the desired wall temperature for the reaction chambers 210 and the desired resistivity of the reaction chambers 210.

[110] In some embodiments, the reaction chambers 210 can be formed of a material that has limited interaction with the RF fields (e.g. ceramic, refractory metals) and a material that can dissipate electromagnetic energy can be used as a jacket to cover the reaction chambers 210. That is, the jacket can be placed to surround the reaction chambers 210. For example, the jacket can be made of a material having high electrical conductivity while the reaction chambers 210 can be made of graphite, carbon, a mixture thereof (e.g., graphite mixed with traces of carbon allotropes), silicon carbide or refractory metals.

[111] In some embodiments, the reaction chambers 210 can also be coated or plated with non-magnetic materials, such as metal (e.g., copper or its alloys) or refractory metals or alloys, ceramics (e.g., silicon carbine, silicon nitride) to protect the surface of the reaction chambers 210 from oxidation or other chemical degradation and/or to provide increased mechanical strength to the reaction chambers 210.

[112] In some embodiments, thermally insulating materials (e.g., firebrick materials, ceramic fibers) can be integrated within the reaction chambers 210 or heating components 220. In some embodiments, the reactor 202 can be thermally insulated to reduce heat loss.

[113] In some embodiments, the inner surface of the reaction chambers 210 can be coated. For example, a protective coating such as a hard coating (e.g., ceramic coating) can minimize chamber erosion that may be caused by the flow of particles within the reaction chamber 210. A high emissivity coating can promote high infrared radiation to the feedstock 104 flowing through the reaction tube 210.

[114] In some embodiments, the reaction chambers 210 can be filled with media for promoting pyrolysis and/or promoting the transfer of heat between the heating components 220 and the reaction chambers 210. In some embodiments, the media can include material capable of dissipating electromagnetic energy. Further, the media can include material with a high surface area. For example, the media can be activated carbon and zeolites.

[115] Referring now to FIG. 3, shown therein is an illustration 300 of another example reactor 302 for the system 100 of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment. The reactor 302 can include a plurality of reaction chambers 310A, 310B, 310C (collectively referred to as reaction chambers 310) forming a set 314 of reaction chambers 310. A heating component 320 can be coupled to the set 314 of reaction chambers. An electrical generator 330 provide power to the heating component 320.

[116] Although FIG. 3 shows the set 314 including seven reaction chambers 310, fewer or more reaction chambers 310 can be included in a set. As well, although FIG. 3 shows the reactor 302 including one set 314 of reaction chambers, one heating component 320 coupled to the set 314, and one electrical generator 330, additional sets 314 of reaction chambers, heating components 320 and/or electrical generators 330 can be included.

[117] Similar to FIG. 2, each reaction chambers 310 can be a reaction tube. Feedstock 104 can flow through the reaction tubes 310 and the pyrolysis reaction can occur within the reaction tubes 310.

[118] As shown in FIG. 3, the heating component 320 can be an inductive heating coil. For example, the inductive heating coil can be a solenoid coil. Solenoid coils can be formed of one or more refractory metals and/or alloys suitable for high temperature operation. For example, the solenoid coil can be formed of one or more of tungsten, molybdenum, and/or titanium-zirconium-molybdenum (TZM). When a conductive tube is inserted in a solenoid coil, energization of the solenoid coil can induce currents on the surface of the tube. The surface current can flow mainly around the circumference of the tube. The flow of surface current on the tube generates its own magnetic field such that the field strength inside the tube is negligible, or near zero. Most of the inductive heating can occur on the outer surface of the tube, where the induced current flows substantially within the skin depth of the surface. [119] The use of inductive heating coils or inductive coupling can be advantageous because it allows the reaction chamber 310 to be operated at a high temperature without requiring the coils to operate at the same high temperature. The heat generated by the coils is due to the conduction losses of the current in the coils, which is separate from the conduction losses of the walls of the reaction chambers 310. Further, as will be described with reference to FIG. 11 , the heat provided by inductive heating coils can depend on the turns ratio, which can be varied to optimize the heat provided to the reaction chamber 310, for a given current of the electrical generator 330.

[120] The inductive heating coils can be formed of resistive wires such as, but not limited to, nichrome wires. Further, the inductive heating coils can formed of tubes. Coolant can be circulated within the tubes to cool the coils. For example, water and/or other fluids can be used as the coolant. In some cases, feedstock 104 can be used as the coolant. Thus, the feedstock 104 can be preheated prior to pyrolysis in the reaction chamber 110. Thus, heat generated in the coils is recycled, or further utilized, resulting in increased system efficiency. In some embodiments, the inductive heating coils can be made of Litz wire to reduce electrical losses and to help maintain the coils at low temperature. In some embodiments, the coolant can be circulated through a chiller to maintain the temperature of the coolant.

[121] Referring now to FIG. 4, shown therein is an illustration 400 of another example reactor 402 for the system 100 of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment. The reactor 402 can include a reaction chamber 410 and a plurality of heating components 420A, 420B (collectively referred to as heating components 420) coupled to the reaction chamber 410. Similar to illustration 300, in the example shown in FIG. 4, heating components 420 can be inductive heating coils to heat the reaction chamber 410, respectively.

[122] A plurality of electrical generators 430A, 430B (collectively referred to as electrical generators 430) provide power to the heating components 420. Although FIG. 4 shows two heating components 420 and two electrical generators 430 coupled to the reaction chamber 410, fewer or more heating components 420 and/or electrical generators 430 can be included.

[123] As shown in FIG. 4, the heating components 420 be arranged along the length of the reaction chamber 410. Furthermore, each heating component 420 can include multiple sets of induction coils placed along the length of the reaction chamber 410. In some embodiments, each heating component 420 can be controlled independently. Alternatively, as shown in FIG. 6, the heating components 120 can be electrodes, such as electrically isolated electrodes 620A, 620C, 620E, 620G or direct contact electrodes 620B, 620D, 620F, 620H.

[124] In some embodiments, the reaction chamber 410 can be a body formed of a mass of material that can absorb electromagnetic energy and dissipate heat. A plurality of channels 412A, 412B, 412C (collectively referred to as channels 412) formed therein the body 410. Fewer or more channels 412 can be provided within the body 410. The channels 412 can be produced by drilling, casting, laser machine, water drilling, or other means. Feedstock 104 can flow through the channels 412 and the pyrolysis reaction can take place therein. During the pyrolysis process, some, or all of the channels 412, can be used.

[125] As shown in FIG. 4, the channels 412 can be formed substantially vertically within the body 410. In other embodiments, the channels 412 can be formed at another angle with respect to the body 410. Furthermore, the angle may be adjustable during the pyrolysis process.

[126] As shown in FIG. 4, the body 410 can have a cylinder shape. In another example shown in FIG. 5, the body 510 can have a rectangular prism, or block shape. In yet another example shown in the top view of FIG. 7, the body 710 can have a hexagonal prism shape. The plurality of channels 512A, 512B, 512C (collectively referred to as channels 512) and 712A, 712B, 712C (collectively referred to as channels 712) can be formed therein the respective bodies 510 and 710.

[127] With reaction chambers 410, 510, and 710 formed of a mass of material, the heating components 420, 520, and 720 can deliver electromagnetic energy to the reaction chambers 410, 510, and 710 by means of two or more electrodes arranged in direct contact with the mass. In some embodiments, the electrodes can be positioned within the mass. That is, the electrodes can be embedded within the mass. In some embodiments, the electrodes can be positioned on the outer surface of the mass. For example, as shown in FIG. 5, a pair of electrodes 520 can be arranged on the sides of the rectangular prism body 510 to form a parallel plate arrangement. In another example shown in FIG. 6, electrodes 620A, 620B, 620C, 620D, 620E, 620F, 620G, 620H (collectively referred to as electrodes 620) can encircle the cylinder body 610 to form a concentric arrangement. In yet another example shown in FIG. 7, electrodes 720A, 720B, and 720C (collectively referred to as electrodes 720) can be arranged on the sides of the hexagonal prism body 710. Furthermore, electrodes 720 can be three phase electrodes. Other electrode arrangements are possible.

[128] The electrodes 520, 620, 720 can be formed of any conductive material that can tolerate high temperatures, such as but not limited to, refractory metals and high temperature conductive ceramics. In some embodiments, the electrodes can provide a capacitive coupling. For example, as shown in FIG. 6, one or more electrodes, such as electrodes 620A, 620C, 620E, and 620G can be coated with electrically insulating material. In at least one embodiment, the outer surface of the electrodes 620 can be coated with materials for minimizing infrared emissivity.

[129] The channels 412, 512, 612, 712 can have a longer length than that of typical fluidized bed reactor. Longer channels can allow for the use of a higher velocity of feedstock 104. A higher velocity within the channels 412, 512, 612, 712 can allow for self-cleaning of the inner surface of the channels 412, 512, 612, 712 by solid carbon pyrolytic product. In addition, a cleaning device can be used to remove carbon particles produced from the pyrolysis reaction from the inner surface of the channels 412, 512, 612, 712. For example, the cleaning device can insert cleaning rods in the channels 412, 512, 612, 712. Cleaning rods can be made from material that maintains mechanical strength and rigidity at operational temperatures, such as refractory metals, or ceramics. In another example, the cleaning device can inject a cleaning substance into the channels 412, 512, 612, 712. For example, the cleaning substance can be a high velocity cleaning gas or include abrasive particles, such as a ceramic, including but not limited to Silicon-Nitride (Si-N). The cleaning substance can be constantly circulated in the channels 412, 512, 712 to prevent carbon accumulation on the walls of the channels 412, 512, 712.

[130] As shown in FIG. 2 to FIG. 7, the heating components 220, 320, 420, 520, 620, 720 can be coupled to the reaction chambers 210, 310, 410, 510, 610, 710, respectively. In some embodiments, the heating component 120 may not be coupled to the reaction chamber 110. Instead, the heating component 120 can heat media filling the reaction chamber 110. For example, the channels 412, 512, 612, 712 can be filled with media for promoting pyrolysis and/or promoting the transfer of heat from the body 410, 510, 610, 710 to the channels 412, 512, 612, 712, for example, through conduction.

[131] The heated media can, in turn, provide heat to the feedstock 104 of the pyrolysis process. For example, the reaction chamber 110 can be filled with suspended lossy dielectric and/or lossy conductor particles (e.g., the reactor 102 can be a fluidized bed reactor), or a lossy material that can provide dissipative heat to the reaction chamber 110. The suspended lossy dielectric or lossy conductor particles can improve the efficiency of the chemical reactions in the pyrolysis process.

[132] Referring now to FIG. 8, shown therein is an illustration 800 of an example reaction tube 810, in accordance with an example embodiment. Reaction tube 810 can be used in example reactors 202 or 302. As shown, heating component 820 is coupled to the reaction tube 810. Heating component 820 can be inductive heating coils or resistive heating coils. Feedstock 104 can flow into the reaction tube 81 O at a first end, or inlet 812a of the reaction tube 810 and pyrolytic products 106 can flow out of the reaction tube 810 at the opposite end, or outlet 812b of the reaction tube 810. The flow of feedstock 104 into the reaction tube 810 pyrolytic products out of the reaction tube 810 can be in a continuous process.

[133] Thermal conduction from the wall 81 Ow of the reaction tube 810 heats the feedstock 104 as it flows through the reaction tube 810. As the feedstock 104 progresses through the reaction tube 810, the feedstock 104 is gradually heated, which can create a gradient of temperature in the reaction tube 810. From Le Chatelier’s principle, the forward rate of pyrolysis will steadily increase as the feedstock 104 progresses through the reaction tube 810. As a result, an inlet portion 814a of the reaction tube 810 proximate to the inlet 812a can have a lower temperature and result in a lower rate of pyrolysis. An outlet portion 814b of the reaction tube 810 proximate to the outlet 812b can have a higher temperature and result in a higher rate of pyrolysis.

[134] To improve energy efficiency, it can be desirable to minimize heat dissipation and concentrate the heat within the reaction tube 810 in the region(s) where the pyrolysis reaction takes place. That is, it can be desirable to minimize heat dissipation outside the reaction tube 810.

[135] Referring now to FIG. 9, shown therein is an illustration 900 of another example reaction tube 910, in accordance with an example embodiment. Reaction tube 910 can be substantially similar to reaction tube 810. Heating component 920 can be inductive heating coils. Feedstock 104 can flow into the reaction tube 910 at a first end, or inlet 912a of the reaction tube 910 and pyrolytic products 106 can flow out of the reaction tube 910 at an opposite end, or outlet 912b of the reaction tube 910. [136] Reaction tube 910 includes an insulation layer 918. The insulation layer 918 can surround the outer surface of the wall 91 Ow of the reaction tube 910, that is, the insulation layer can cover the body of the reaction tube 910. With heating component 920 being inductive heating coils, the heating component 920 can surround the outer surface of the insulation layer 918. The insulation layer 918 can provide thermal insulation and concentrate the heat provided by the heating component 920 within the reaction tube 910.

[137] The insulation layer 918 can allow the heating component 920 to operate at a cooler temperature than compared to the heating component 820 of reaction tube 810. Operating at lower temperatures allows for more flexibility in the type of material used for the heating component 920. That is, since the heating component 920 can operate at lower temperatures, the heating component 920 can be made of materials that may not be suitable for use at higher temperatures. For example, heating component 920 can be made of a copper material. Reducing the operating temperatures of the heating component 920 can additionally reduce resistance which can allow for the electrical generator 130 powering the heating component 920 to operate more efficiently.

[138] The use of inductive heating coils 920 can also contribute to maintaining the energy efficiency of the system 100 since inductive heating coils 920 can provide sufficient heat to the reaction tube 910 to cause pyrolysis to occur within the reaction tube 910 while retaining a relatively cool temperature. Another advantage of using inductive heating coils 920 can be that the heat generated by the inductive heating coils 920 can be determined only as a function of the electrical generator 130, the heating component 920, and the material of the reaction tube 910, which can allow the heat generated to be controlled more precisely. That is, the heat generated by the inductive heating coils 920 can be determined independent of the electric and/or magnetic properties of the feedstock 104 flowing through the reaction tube 910.

[139] Referring now to FIG. 10, shown therein is an illustration 1000 of another example reaction tube 1010, in accordance with an example embodiment. Reaction tube 1010 can be substantially similar to reaction tube 810. Heating component 1020 can be resistive heating coils. Feedstock 104 can flow into the reaction tube 1010 at a first end, or inlet 1012a of the reaction tube 1010 and pyrolytic products 106 can flow out of the reaction tube 1010 at an opposite end, or outlet 1012b of the reaction tube 1010. [140] Similar to reaction tube 910, reaction tube 1010 includes an insulation layer 1018. However, with the heating component 1020 being resistive heating coils, the insulation layer 1018 can surround the reaction tube 1010 and the heating component 1010. That is, the heating component 1020 can be arranged between the insulation layer 1018 and the outer surface of the wall 101 Ow of the reaction tube 1010, that is, the body of the reaction tube 1010.

[141] The resistive heating coils 1020 can be arranged immediately adjacent to the outer surface of the wall 1010w of the reaction tube 1010 to minimize the temperature difference between the heating component 1020 and the reaction tube 1000. Example materials for the resistive heating coils 1020 can include but are not limited to, nichrome, and alchrome. An advantage of resistive heating coils 1020 is that the electrical generator 130 can be a DC power source or other low frequency power source. In contrast, inductive heating coils 920 can require the electrical generator 130 to be a high power RF generator.

[142] The insulation layer 1018 surrounding the reaction tube 1010 and the heating component 1010 allows the insulation layer 1018 to be thicker than that of the insulation layer 918. However, the reaction tube 910 can retain more heat than that of reaction tube 1010 as heat is applied directly to the insulated wall 91 Ow of reaction tube 910 and accordingly, the reaction tube 910 can benefit from the full thickness of the insulation layer 918. Furthermore, although only one reaction tube 1010 is shown in FIG. 10, in some embodiments an insulation layer 1018 can cover a plurality of reaction tubes 1010, such as the set of reaction tubes 314 shown in FIG. 3.

[143] In indirect heating pyrolysis systems 100 using inductive heating coils 1020, the surface current flowing in a reaction tube 1010 can be determined using Equation 2 below:

Surface Current_tube = Current _coil * N * R (Equation 2) where N is the number of turns of the coil; and

R is the coil-to-tube coupling coefficient.

[144] R is dependent on the thickness of the insulation layer 1018. R is typically in the range of about 0.2 to 0.6. N is an optimizable design parameter.

[145] The reaction tube surface current flows in a small layer determined by the skin depth, which can be calculated using Equation 3 below: (Equation 3)

where 6 is the skin depth (in meters);

/ is the permeability of the material (in henries/meter); f is the frequency of the current (in hertz); and

<J is the conductivity of the material (in siemens/meter).

[146] Since the material of the reaction tube is not magnetic, the permeability of the material / is fixed. However, the frequency and the resistivity of the material can be varied according to the material selected and the excitation source selected. If the excitation source can be selected to have a set frequency, the number of turns N can be varied to maintain a target surface current value in the reaction tube. The heating of the reaction tube depends on the resistance encountered by the surface current, which can be calculated using Equation 4 below:

Rsurface = ^7 (Equation 4) where R_surf_aCe is the resistance of the surface of the reaction tube; c is the outside circumference of the reaction tube;

6 is the skin depth; and

L is the approximate length of the coil.

[147] The heat generated inside the reaction tube is the product of the square of the induced current and R_surface. To achieve the desired heat inside the reaction tube, the different variables may be varied. For example, based on the desired heat, a certain tube material and/or flow rate may be selected.

[148] Referring now to FIG. 11 , shown therein is an illustration 1100 of another example reaction tube 1110, in accordance with an example embodiment. Reaction tube 1110 can be used in example reactors 202 or 302. As shown, heating components 1120A and 1120B (collectively referred to as heating components 1120) are coupled to the reaction tube 1110. That is, heating components 1120 are coupled around the body of the reaction tube 1110. Each of heating components 1120 can be inductive heating coils, and in particular solenoid coils.

[149] An advantage of inductive heating coils 1120 can be that the heat generated by the inductive heating coils 1120 can be varied by varying the coil pitch and/or the winding density of the coils, to achieve different levels of heat, according to Equation 2 and 3 above. For example, as shown, a first portion of heating component 1120, that is inductive heating coil 1120A has a higher winding density than another portion of heating component 1120, that is inductive heating coil 1120B. The higher winding density provides a higher level of heating, and resulting in a hotter portion 1114a of the reaction tube 1110. Conversely, inductive heating coil 1120B is more sparse than inductive heating coil 1120A, providing a lower level of heating, and resulting in a cooler portion 1114b of the reaction tube 1110. It can be advantageous to heat some portions of the reaction tube 1110 at a higher level that other portions of the tube reaction chamber 1110. For example, as described with reference to FIG. 8, there can be a heat gradient within the reaction tube 810. Such a heat gradient can be reduced with different winding densities along different portions of the reaction tube, thereby increasing energy efficiency.

[150] Referring now to FIG. 12A, shown therein is an illustration 1200 of another example reaction tube 1210, in accordance with an example embodiment. Reaction tube 1210 can be substantially similar to reaction tube 910 in FIG. 9 with an insulation layer 1218 around the outer surface of wall 1210w of the reaction tube 1210 and heating component 1220 around the outer surface of the insulation layer 1218.

[151] However, as shown in FIG. 12A, the heating component 1220 can be non-uniformly distributed along the length of the reaction tube 1210. In some embodiments, one or more of the coil pitch or the winding density of the inductive heating coil 1220 can be variable along the length of the reaction tube 1210 instead of uniform. For example, the density of the windings of the inductive heating coil 1220 can vary, similar to that in FIG. 11. The heating component 1220 can be arranged and/or configured such that a higher level of heat is produced in a portion of the reaction tube 1210 near the inlet 1212a than the heat produced in a portion of the reaction tube 1210 near the outlet 1212b. In the portion of the reaction tube 1210 where the feedstock 104 has reached the desired pyrolysis temperature, for example, the pitch of the heating coil 1220 can be widened, for example, to a level only sufficient for the enthalpy provided by the induction heating to compensate for the endothermal deficit of the pyrolysis reaction. In some embodiments, the pitch of the heating coil 1220 can depend on the length of the reaction tube 1210.

[152] Referring now to FIG. 12B, shown therein is an illustration 1250 of an example temperature profile along the length of the reaction tube 1210 of FIG. 12A. The solid line represents the reaction tube wall temperature 1252 and the dashed line represents the feedstock temperature 1254.

[153] The heating component 1220 generates more heat around the inlet 1212a of the reaction tube 1210, as indicated by the significantly higher reaction tube wall temperature 1252 near the inlet 1212a. The heating component 1220 generates less heat around the outlet 1212b of the reaction tube 1210, as indicated by the lower reaction tube wall temperature 1252 near the outlet 1212b. However, the feedstock temperature 1254 remains relatively uniform along the length of the reaction tube 1210. This configuration of a higher winding density near the inlet 1212a than the winding density of the outlet 1211 b can allow for the desired rate of pyrolysis to occur over a greater region of the reaction tube 1210 when compared to the reaction tube 910 having a uniform winding density along the length of reaction tube 910.

[154] Referring now to FIG. 13, shown therein is an illustration 1300 of another example reaction tube 1310, in accordance with an example embodiment. Reaction tube 1310 can be substantially similar to reaction tube 1210 in FIG. 12 with an insulation layer 1318 around the outer surface of wall 1310w of the reaction tube 1310 and heating components 1320A and 1320B (collectively referred to as heating components 1320) around the outer surface of the insulation layer 1318.

[155] The configuration and/or arrangement of the heating components 1320 can be based on the length of the reaction tube 1310. If the induction heating coil 1320 has a large number of windings, the inductance can be high. However, high inductance can impose constraints on the electrical generator 1330.

[156] To reduce the effects of a heating coil 1320 with a high inductance, the reaction tube 1310 can include a heating component 1320 separated into a first portion 1320A and a second portion 1320B, each portion having a lower inductance than a single heating coil would have. As shown in FIG. 13, each portion 1320A and 1320B can be connected in parallel to the same electrical generator 1330. Alternatively, each portion 1320A and 1320B can be connected to different electrical generators 1330 having the same or different operational parameters. For example, each portion 1320A and 1320B can be connected to a single RF generator 1330 or to different RF generators 1330 having the same or different frequencies. Using different electrical generators 1330 can, in some cases, be advantageous, since the heat produced by each portion 1320A and 1320B can be controlled with greater precision. [157] Referring now to FIG. 14, shown therein is an illustration 1400 of another example reaction tube 1410, in accordance with an example embodiment. Reaction tube 1410 can be substantially similar to reaction tube 1210 in FIG. 12 with an insulation layer 1418 around the outer surface of wall 1410w of the reaction tube 1410 and heating component 1420 around the outer surface of the insulation layer 1418.

[158] Reaction tube 1410 can additionally include one or more sensors, such as sensors 1442A, 1442B, 1442C (collectively referred to as sensors 1442). Insulation layer 1418 can define one or more holes to provide observation windows 1440A, 1440B, 1440C (collectively referred to as observation windows 1440). The one or more holes allow sensors 1442A, 1442B, 1442C to capture operating data representative of the pyrolysis reaction within the reaction tube 1410 at respective locations. For example, sensors 1442A, 1442B, 1442C can be any temperature sensor, including but not limited to optical sensors and/or infrared thermocouple sensors. Although three observation windows 1440 and three sensors 1442 are shown in FIG. 14, it will be understood that the reaction tube 1410 can include fewer or more observation windows 1440 and/or sensors 1442.

[159] As shown in FIG. 14, the observation windows 1440 can be arranged substantially orthogonal to the reaction tube 1410 to minimize heat loss and heat by conduction and/or convection to the sensors 1442. In embodiments where the heating source is a RF source, the observation windows 1440 can be made of a material that does not absorb RF waves. Based on the data captured by the sensors 1442, the operation of the electrical generator 130 and/or the arrangement and/or the configuration of the heating components 1420 can be adjusted to achieve a desired pyrolysis rate within the reaction tube 1410. For example, the sensors 1442 can obtain temperature measurements and a temperature profile (see e.g., FIG. 12B) of the reaction tube 1410 can be determined.

[160] Although sensors 1442 are shown for reaction tube 1410 in FIG. 14, sensors 1442 can be provided for any of reaction tube, reactor 102, and/or system 100 disclosed herein.

[161 ] Referring now to FIG. 15, shown therein is an illustration 1500 of another example reaction tube 1510, in accordance with an example embodiment. Reaction tube 1510 can be used in example reactors 202 or 302. Reaction tube 1510 can be substantially similar to reaction tube 1210 in FIG. 12 with an insulation layer 1518 around the outer surface of wall 1510w of the reaction tube 1510 and heating component 1520 around the outer surface of the insulation layer 1518. Although the heating elements 1520 are shown in FIG. 15 as being uniform, the heating elements 1520 can be arranged and/or configured similar to that of FIG. 11 to FIG. 14.

[162] Unlike reaction tubes 810, 910, 1010, 1110, 1210, 1310, 1410, reaction tube 1510 can have a variable diameter. As shown in FIG. 15, the reaction tube 1510 can have a neck portion 1514n that has a narrower diameter than non-neck portions of the reaction tube 1510, including upstream non-neck portion 1514a and downstream non-neck portion 1514b. The neck portion 1514n can be located proximate to the outlet 1512b of the reaction tube 1510.

[163] Assuming a constant flow rate of the feedstock 104, pressure can build up in upstream non-neck portion 1514a, which is prior to the neck portion 1514n. The pressure build up can result in an increase in temperature. The increase in temperature can lead to an increase in the rate of pyrolysis, or an acceleration of the pyrolysis reaction, consistent with Le Chatelier’s principle, as the concentration of the feedstock 104 will be higher in the neck portion 1514n.

[164] As the temperature of the feedstock 104 increases, the equilibrium position can shift in favor of the endothermic reaction to absorb the added heat and restore equilibrium. When the reaction tube 1510 widens again in downstream non- neck portion 1514b, the gases flowing through the reaction tube 1510 can experience a drop in pressure. The drop in pressure can cause the temperature of the reaction tube 1510 to drop and a deceleration of the pyrolysis reaction.

[165] Reaction tube 1510 optionally includes an insulation element 1518. The insulation element 1518 can be positioned proximate to the outlet of the neck portion 1514n. The insulation element 1518 can provide thermal insulation, which further assists in the drop in temperature along the reaction tube 1510, and in particular across the neck portion 1514n. In the downstream non-neck portion 1514b, the concentration of pyrolytic product 106 is high and as a result, the rate of reverse reaction is high, according to Le Chatelier’s principle. However, as the pressure drops, the reverse reaction slows down, increasing the overall forward conversion yield of the pyrolysis reaction in the reaction tube 1510. Thus, a high rate of pyrolysis can be maintained in the neck portion 1514n and the downstream non-neck portion 1514b without the aid of heating components 1520.

[166] As shown in FIG. 15, the heating components 1520 are coupled only to the non-neck portion of the reaction tube 1510 prior to, or upstream of the neck portion 1514n. In some embodiments, heating components 1520 are coupled only to the nonneck portion of the reaction tube 1510.

[167] Referring now to FIG. 16, shown therein is an illustration 1600 of an example reactor 1602 for the system 100 of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment. The reactor 1602 can include reaction chamber 1610. Reaction chamber 1610 can include an outer tube 1610w, that is, the walls of the reaction chamber 1610 and at least one inner tube within at least a portion the outer tube 161 Ow. As shown in FIG. 16, reaction chamber 1610 can include a first inner tube 1620 and a second inner tube 1614.

[168] Reaction chamber 1610 be filled with media 1612. Media 1612 can increase the heat capacity of the reaction chamber 1610. In some embodiments, media 1612 can also absorb radio frequency (RF) energy, transport carbon out of the reaction chamber 1610, and/or prevent carbon from accumulating on surfaces of the inner tube 1620 and the outer tube 1610w. For example, reactor 1602 can be a circulating bed reactor. Fluidized bed reactors with catalyst bed media 1612 can lower the temperature and increase the conversion efficiency of the pyrolytic reaction. However, one of the challenges with fluidized bed reactors is maintaining the fluid bed over the full cross section of the reaction chamber 1610. Reaction chamber 1610 can address the non-uniform flow problem by inducing flow of the media 1612, including the catalyst media, in a vertically-oriented tube.

[169] As shown, inner tube 1614 can be coaxial with inner tube 1620. Furthermore, inner tube 1614 extends into at least a portion of inner tube 1620. Inner tube 1614 can serve as an inlet tube for introducing the feedstock 104 into the lower portion of the inner tube 1620 within the reaction chamber 1610. Feedstock 104 can be a pressurized gas. The introduction of feedstock 104 to the lower portion of the inner tube 1620 reduces the static head of the media 1612 inside the inner tube 1620 and causes the media 1612 inside the inner tube 1620 to flow upwards. At the upper portion of the inner tube 1620, the media 1612 flows over the inner tube 1620, to the outer annulus of the reaction chamber 1610, that is, between the inner tube 1620 and the inner wall 1610w of the reaction chamber 1610. Gravity can cause the media 1612 to return to the lower portion of the reaction chamber 1610. Within the inner tube 1620, the feedstock 104 can undergo pyrolysis and separate into pyrolytic products, such as hydrogen (H2) and carbon (C) when the feedstock is methane (CH4). Pyrolytic gases such as but not limited to hydrogen (H2) can flow upwards and out of reaction chamber 1610 via discharge tube 1616 in the upper portion of the reaction chamber 1610.

[170] In some embodiments, one or more of the inner tubes 1614, 1620 and/or the outer tube 1610w can serve as the heating component 120. Heating of the media 1612 can be accomplished by direct resistive heating of the media 1612 using DC power or AC power, such as an RF, across the inner tube 1620 and the outer tube 1610w; inductive heating of the media 1612 by exciting the inner tube 1620 and the outer tube 1610w with an RF power source; conductive heating by heating the outer tube 161 Ow with a resistive heating element; or any other method suitable for heating the media 1612. That is, the electrical generator 130 can be coupled to one or more of the outer tube 161 Ow and/or the inner tubes 1614, 1620.

[171] Other configurations are possible. For example, the reaction chamber 1610 can include additional inner tubes 1614, 1620 and discharge tubes 1616. Furthermore, inner tube 1614 may not be coaxial with inner tube 1620 and inner tube 1620 may not be concentric with the reaction chamber 1610.

[172] Referring now to FIG. 17, shown therein is an illustration 1700 of an example reactor 1702 for the system 100 of FIG. 1 , in accordance with an example embodiment. The reactor 1702 can include reaction chamber 1710. Reaction chamber 1710 can include an outer tube 1710w, that is, the walls of the reaction chamber 1710 and at least one inner tube within at least a portion the outer tube 1710w. As shown in FIG. 17, reaction chamber 1710 can include a first inner tube 1720 and a second inner tube 1714.

[173] Similar to reactor 1602, reactor 1702 can be a circulating bed reactor and filled with media 1712. The feedstock 104 can be a pressurized gas. For example, the feedstock 104 can be a pressurized hydrocarbon gas. As shown, inner tube 1714 can be coaxial with inner tube 1720. Furthermore, inner tube 1714 extends into at least a portion of inner tube 1720.

[174] In contrast to inner tube 1614, inlet tube 1714 extends from the top of the reaction chamber 1710 to the lower portion of the reaction chamber 1710. That is, feedstock 104 enters at the top of the reaction chamber 1710 through the inlet tube 1714. The inlet tube 1714 can extend to the lower portion of the reaction chamber 1710. The inlet tube 1714 can coincide with the center of the inner tube 1720 in the lower portion of the reaction chamber 1710. The inlet tube 1714 can include catalyst absorption dynamics substantially similar to those described with reference to FIG. 16. That is, the pressurized gas feedstock 104 can cause the media 1712 inside the inner tube 1720 to flow upwards. In turn, gravity can cause the media 1712 to return to the lower portion of the reaction chamber 1710.

[175] In some embodiments, one or more of the inner tubes 1714, 1720 and/or the outer tube 1710w can serve as the heating component 120. The electrical generator 1730 can be coupled to one or more of the outer tube 1710w and/or the inner tubes 1714, 1720. The electrical generator 1730 can be a low frequency or DC source and use the finite resistivity of the media 1712 to generate additional heating in the reaction chamber 1710 within the inner tube 1720.

[176] Alternatively, the electrical generator 1730 can be a high frequency electrical excitation source that couples energy into the media 1712, for example if the media 1712 is characterized by poor electrical conduction but is a lossy dielectric. For example, energy can be coupled through dissipation of electromagnetic energy, using a direct electrode contact or capacitive contact. Alternatively, an inductive coupling can be made using RF field and eddy currents within the media 1712 or a combination of the two. Similar to reaction chamber 1610, gaseous pyrolytic product percolates to the surface of the media 1712 and can exit via gaseous discharge tube 1716 located in the upper portion of the reaction chamber 1710, and in particular, the inner tube 1720.

[177] In some embodiments, the reaction chamber 1710 can include a structure 1728 located at or near the top surface of the fluid media 1712. The structure can be a skimmer or tube 1750. The structure 1728 can allow a top layer of the media 1712 to skim or drain off. The top layer can include non-gaseous pyrolytic product 106n. For example, non-gaseous pyrolytic product 106n can include carbon particles, amorphous carbon, graphite, graphene, and other carbon species, which can be processed into a solid and used in other applications.

[178] In some embodiments, the reaction chamber 1710 can include a heat exchanger 1740, which can be located in the upper portion of the reaction chamber 1710. The heat exchanger 1740 can use heat from the gaseous pyrolytic product 106g to preheat the incoming feedstock 104. The heat exchanger 1740 can be a counter flow heat exchanger, which can cool the gaseous pyrolytic product 106g, such as hydrogen (H2) and preheat the incoming feedstock 104, such as methane (CFU).

[179] In at least one embodiment, the outside of the reaction chamber 1710 can be used as an electrode. For example, the casing and the inner tube 1720 can be kept on a ground potential, while the inner tube 1720 can be connected to an electrical generator 130, such as one or more of a DC power source or an AC power source.

[180] The media 1712 used can include graphite particles, carbon particles, graphite or carbon particles with rare earth elements added, liquid metal, molten salt, or other catalytic media including mixtures of different media. Electrically conductive ceramics including doped, conductive silicon carbide can also be used.

[181] When compared to other types of reaction chambers, reaction chamber 1710 has a long body, which can increase the residence time of feedstock 104 within the reaction chamber 1710, promote complete pyrolysis of the feedstock 104, and/or increase the speed (and therefore the throughput) of the pyrolysis process. A further advantage of the circulating bed reaction chamber 1710 can be that a slipstream of the media 1712 can be removed from the reaction chamber 1710, processed to remove carbon and other contaminants, and re-introduced into the reaction chamber 1710, providing continuous on-line cleaning and re-generation of the media 1712.

[182] Other configurations are possible. For example, the reaction chamber 1710 can include additional inner tubes 1714, 1720, discharge tubes 1716 and/or skimmers 1728. Furthermore, innertube 1714 may not be coaxial with innertube 1720 and inner tube 1720 may not be concentric with the reaction chamber 1710.

[183] Referring now to FIG. 18, shown therein is an illustration 1800 of another example reactor 1802, in accordance with an example embodiment. Reactor 1802 can include a reaction chamber 1810 having an outer tube 1810w, that is, the walls of the reaction chamber 1810 and an inner tube 1814 within the outer tube 181 Ow. Reaction chamber 1810 can be substantially similar to reaction tube 1410 in FIG. 14 with an insulation layer 1818 around the outer surface of wall 1810w of the reaction chamber 1810. As shown in FIG. 18, heating component 1820 is provided around the outer surface of the insulation layer 1818, and one or more sensors, such as sensors 1842A, 1842B, 1842C (collectively referred to as sensors 1842) can capture operating data representative of the pyrolysis reaction within the reaction chamber 1810 at respective locations.

[184] As shown, inner tube 1814 can be coaxial with outer tube 1810w. Inner tube 1814 can be formed of the same material as that of the outer tube 1810w, such as but not limited to graphite. However, a graphite inner tube can lead to overheating and material carbon accumulation. In some embodiments, the innertube 1814 can be formed of a different material than the outer tube 1810w, such as but not limited to quartz, which can reduce carbon accumulation within the reaction chamber 1810.

[185] Feedstock 104 can enter inner tube 1814 at a first end 1812a of the reaction chamber 1810. Feedstock 104 can progress along the inner tube 1814. Within the inner tube 1814, the feedstock 104 can undergo pyrolysis, particularly in a reaction zone 181 Or at the second end 1812b of the reaction chamber 1810, to separate into pyrolytic products, such as hydrogen (H2), residual methane (CPU), and other pyrolytic products (CmHn) when the feedstock 104 is methane (CPU).

[186] Pyrolytic products 106 can flow out of reaction chamber 1810 via discharge tube 1816. As shown in FIG. 18, discharge tube 1816 can be positioned substantially orthogonal to the inner tube 1814 at the first end 1812a. That is, the discharge tube 1816 can be proximal to the inlet 1814. The proximity of the discharge tube 1816 to the inlet 1814 provides heat exchange. In particular, thermal energy from the pyrolytic product 106 can be used to preheat the incoming feedstock 104, similar to heat exchangers 1640 and 1740.

[187] In some embodiments, one or more filter assemblies (not shown in FIG. 18) can be provided along the discharge tube 1816. An illustration 1900 of an example filter assembly 1960 is shown in FIG. 19A. Filter assembly 1960 can be provided for any of reactor 102 and/or system 100 disclosed herein.

[188] Filter assembly 1960 can include a filter housing 1960h and a filter base 1960b attached to a lower portion of the filter housing 1960h. The filter base 1960b holds a screen 1960s. The screen 1960s can be any filter or screening element with a plurality of apertures that allows smaller particles to pass through the apertures but does not allow larger particles to pass through. For example, the screen 1960s can be a knitted or woven carbon felt filter cloth.

[189] The filter assembly 1960 can also have a filter assembly inlet 1960i positioned at the top of the filter assembly 1960, and in particular, above the filter housing 1960h. The filter assembly 1960 can also have a filter assembly outlet 1960o positioned at the bottom of the filter assembly 1960, and in particular, below the filter base 1960b. Pyrolytic products 106 from the reaction chamber 1810 can be directed into the filter assembly inlet 1960L Gaseous pyrolytic products 106g can fall downward, pass through the screen 1960s, and exit the filter assembly outlet 1960o.

[190] Non-gaseous pyrolytic products 106n cannot pass through the screen 1960s and accumulate on a top surface of the screen 1960s. The particles of non- gaseous pyrolytic products 106n can form a filter cake (not shown in FIG. 19) on the screen 1960s. The filter cake can become the filter media itself and prevent particles of non-gaseous pyrolytic products 106n from passing through the screen 1960s. Particles of non-gaseous pyrolytic products 106n can remain in the filter chamber 1960c until they are removed. The filter assembly 1960 can also include a sensor 1942, such as a differential pressure sensor, to determine the difference in pressure between the filter assembly inlet 1960i and the filter assembly outlet 1960o. The pressure difference can be indicative that a significant amount of non-gaseous pyrolytic products 106n has accumulated in the filter chamber 1960c and requires removal.

[191] Referring now to FIG. 19B, shown therein is an illustration 1910 of an example duplex filter assembly 1970 is shown in FIG. 19B. Duplex filter assembly 1970 can be provided for any of reactor 102 and/or system 100 disclosed herein. Similar to filter assembly 1960, the duplex filter assembly 1970 can include a filter assembly inlet 1960i positioned at the top of the filter assembly 1970 and a filter assembly outlet 1960o positioned at the bottom of the filter assembly 1970. As shown, duplex filter assembly 1970 can include at least two filter assembly groups 1970M and 1970N. Each filter assembly group 1970M, 1970N also has a group inlet isolation valve, a group outlet isolation valve, and sensor, such as inlet isolation valve 1972M, outlet isolation valve 1974M, and differential pressure sensor 1942 M forfilter assembly group 1970M and inlet isolation valve 1972N, outlet isolation valve 1974N, and differential pressure sensor 1942N forfilter assembly group 1970N. Although only one filter assembly is shown for each filter assembly group 1970M, 1970N in FIG. 19B, each filter assembly group can include additional filter assemblies.

[192] The filter assembly groups 1970M, 1970N of the duplex filter assembly 1970 can operate simultaneously or in rotation. For example, a first filter assembly group, such as filter assembly group 1970N, can be operated by opening the first group inlet isolation valve 1972N and the first group outlet isolation valve 1974N, as shown. While the first filter assembly group 1970N operates, the second group inlet isolation valve 1972M and the second group outlet isolation valve 1974M can be closed to not operate the second filter assembly group 1970M.

[193] The first filter assembly group 1970N can operate until it requires cleaning. When the first filter assembly group 1970N requires cleaning (i.e. , removal of non-gaseous pyrolytic products 106n), the second filter assembly group 1970M can be operated by closing the first group inlet and outlet isolation valves 1972N, 1974N and opening the second group inlet and outlet isolation valves 1972M, 1974M. Similarly, the second filter assembly group 1970M can operate until it requires cleaning, at which time the first filter assembly group 1970N can be operated by closing the second group inlet and outlet isolation valves 1972M, 1974M and opening the first group inlet and outlet isolation valves 1972N, 1974N. Each of the filter assembly groups 1970M, 1970M can continue rotating on and off operation as needed.

[194] Returning now to FIG. 18, the feedstock 104 (i.e., reactants) and pyrolytic products 106 generally move linearly within the reaction chamber 1810. Furthermore, the reaction chamber 1810 is generally horizontally oriented. However, in a vertically oriented reaction chamber, the pyrolytic products 106 can move in a cyclonic direction, which can allow for easier removal of the pyrolytic products 106 from the reaction chamber 1810.

[195] Referring now to FIG. 20A and 20B, shown therein is an illustration 2000 of another example reactor 2002, in accordance with an example embodiment. Reactor 2002 can include a reaction chamber 2010 having an outer tube 201 Ow, that is, the walls of the reaction chamber 2010, and an inlet 2014 that is substantially orthogonal to the outer tube 1810w. In some embodiments, the outer tube 201 Ow can be formed of graphite and the inlet 2014 can be formed of quartz to reduce carbon accumulation within the reaction chamber 2010.

[196] In contrast to the linear movement of feedstock 104 (i.e., reactants) and pyrolytic products 106 of the reactor 1802, the feedstock 104 (i.e., reactants) and pyrolytic products 106 move in a cyclonic direction within the reaction chamber 2010. The cyclonic movement facilitates removal of pyrolytic products 106 from the reaction chamber 2010.

[197] Similar to reactor 1802 in FIG. 18, reactor 2002 can include an insulation layer 2018 around the outer surface of wall 201 Ow of the reaction chamber 2010. As shown, heating component 2020 can be embedded within the insulation layer 2018. Furthermore, reaction chamber 2010 can also include a cover 2028 around the outer surface of the insulation layer 2018. The cover 2028 can be formed of a non-magnetic metal to prevent air from migrating to the insulation layer 2018 and further to the outer surface of wall 201 Ow of the reaction chamber 2010. In this manner, the cover 2028 can protect the outer surface of wall 201 Ow of the reaction chamber 2010 from high temperature oxidation. Although cover 2028 is shown for reaction chamber 2010 in FIG. 20A, a cover can be provided for any of reaction tube and/or reactor disclosed herein.

[198] The surface of the reaction chamber 2010 can degrade due to high temperature oxidation, eventually leading to failure of the reaction chamber 2010 and leakage of hydrogen. Furthermore, any hydrogen leakages via any joints in the reactor assembly or any seals around the sensors 2042 can combust and/or lead to excess temperatures that damage various components including but not limited to the insulation layer 2018 and one or more sensors, such as 2042A, 2042B, 2042C, and 2042D (collectively referred to as sensors 2042).

[199] To reduce the risk of combustion, a purge and vent assembly, such as purge valve 2024p and vent 2024v, can also be provided to remove any hydrogen that does leak out of the reaction chamber 2010. An inert gas 108, such as but not limited to nitrogen, can be injected into the insulation layer 2018, via the purge valve 2024p, and removed via vent 2024v. Although the purge and vent assembly is shown for reaction chamber 2010 in FIG. 20A, a purge and vent assembly can be provided for any of reaction tube and/or reactor disclosed herein.

[200] In addition, bushings 2044A, 2044B, 2044C, and 2044D (collectively referred to as bushings 2044) substantially orthogonal to the reaction chamber 2010 can be provided to allow for a more reliable bonding of the sensors 2042 to the reaction chamber 2010 and reduce the risk of hydrogen leakage. In some embodiments, the bushings 2044 can be formed of graphite. As shown in FIG. 20A, the bushings 2044 can, for example, be tapered split bushings. In some embodiments, the tapered split bushings 2044 can be adhered to the reaction chamber 2010 using an adhesive compound. Although the bushings are shown for sensors 2042 of reaction chamber 2010 in FIG. 20A, bushings can be provided for any sensors of any reaction tube and/or reactor disclosed herein.

[201] Feedstock 104 can enter the reaction chamber 2010 at a first end 2012a. In contrast to reaction chamber 1810, feedstock 104 can enter the reaction chamber 2010 from inlet 2014. As shown in illustration 2004 of FIG. 20B, the inlet 2014 can be tangential to the outer tube 201 Ow, which facilities cyclonic movement of the feedstock 104 within the reaction chamber 2010. Within the reaction chamber 2010, the feedstock 104 can undergo pyrolysis, particularly in a reaction zone 201 Or at the second end 2012b of the reaction chamber 2010, to separate into pyrolytic products, such as hydrogen (H2), residual methane (CH4), and other pyrolytic products (CmHn) when the feedstock 104 is methane (CH4).

[202] Pyrolytic products 106 can flow out of reaction chamber 2010 via discharge tube 2016. As shown in FIG. 20B, discharge tube 2016 can be coaxial with the outer tube 201 Ow. The discharge tube 2016 can be formed of quartz to reduce carbon accumulation. Further, discharge tube 2016 can be proximal to the inlet 2014. The proximity of the discharge tube 2016 to the inlet 2014 provides heat exchange. In particular, thermal energy from the pyrolytic product 106 can be used to preheat the incoming feedstock 104, similar to heat exchangers 1640, 1740, and 1840.

[203] Referring now to FIG. 21 , shown therein is an illustration 2100 of another example reactor2102, in accordance with an example embodiment. Reactor2102 can include a reaction chamber 2110 having an outer tube 2110w, that is, the walls of the reaction chamber 2110, and an inlet 2114 to guide feedstock 104 into the reaction chamber 2110. Further, reactor 2102 includes heating component 2120 around the reaction chamber 2110.

[204] As shown, the reaction chamber 2110 can include a heat exchanger 2140, which can be located in the upper portion of the reaction chamber 2110. The heat exchanger 2140 can use heat from the gaseous pyrolytic product 106g to preheat the incoming feedstock 104. The heat exchanger 2140 can be a counter flow heat exchanger, which can cool the gaseous pyrolytic product 106g, such as hydrogen (H2) and preheat the incoming feedstock 104, such as methane (CH4). Similar to reactor 1802, reactor 2102 can include an insulation layer 2118. Although insulation layer 2118 is only shown in the heat exchanger 2140 portion of the reaction chamber 2110, the entire reaction chamber can be thermally insulated to minimize heat loss.

[205] Similar to reactor 2002, reactor 2102 can be vertically oriented and feedstock 102 can enter the reactor 2102 via the inlet 2114 that is substantially orthogonal to the outer tube 2110w. Furthermore, the inlet 2014 being tangential to the outer tube 2110w can facilitate cyclonic movement of the feedstock 104 within the reaction chamber 2110. However, while feedstock 104 can enter the reactor 2002 at a bottom end 2012a, feedstock 104 can enter the reactor 2102 at a top end 2112a. Further, while pyrolytic products 106 can exit reactor 2002 from a bottom end 2012a, with reactor 2102, gaseous pyrolytic products 106g can exit reactor 2102 from a top end 2112a via discharge tube 2116, which extends upward, and non-gaseous pyrolytic products 106n can exit reactor 2102 from a bottom end 2112b via the structure 2128, which extends downward. As shown in FIG. 21 , structure 2128 can be a collection tank for receiving the non-gaseous pyrolytic products 106n. In addition, the reaction chamber 2110 can have a tapered shape to facilitate the separation of gaseous pyrolytic products 106g and non-gaseous pyrolytic products 106n. In some embodiments, swirl vanes 2156 can be provided at the connection between the heat exchanger portion 2140 and the reaction chamber 2110 to further facilitate the cyclonic movement.

[206] Referring now to FIG. 22, which is a flowchart of an example method 2200 for pyrolysis with indirect heating, in accordance with an example embodiment. To assist with the description of method 2200, reference will be made simultaneously to FIGS. 1 to 21. In some embodiments, the control system can be configured to implement method 2200 or portions of method 2200.

[207] Although the following description will refer to reactor 102, the reactor can be any reactor, such as reactor 202, 302, 402, 502, 602, 702, 1602, 1702, 1802, 2002, or 2102. Furthermore, although the following description will refer to reaction chamber 110, heating component 120, and electrical generator 130, the reaction chamber can be any reaction chamber, such as reaction chambers 210, 310, 410, 510, 610, 710, 810, 910, 1010, 1110, 1210, 1310, 1410, 1510, 1610, 1710, 1810, 2010, or2100; the heating component can be any heating component, such as heating component 220, 320, 420, 520, 620, 720, 820, 920, 1020, 1120, 1220, 1320, 1420, 1520, 1620, 1720, 1820, 2020, or 2120; and the electrical generator can be any electrical generator, such as electrical generator 230, 330, 430, 1330, or 1730.

[208] At 2210, a feedstock 104 can be injected into a reactor 102. The feedstock 104 can include a hydrogen compound. The reactor 102 can include one or more reaction chambers 110. The reactor 102 can be configured to convert at least a portion of the feedstock 104 to pyrolytic products 106 via a pyrolysis reaction. Pyrolytic products 106 can include gaseous products and non-gaseous products, including solid products. For example, hydrogen gas and carbon particles can be produced from the pyrolysis reaction.

[209] At 2220, heat can be provided to the one or more reaction chambers 110 to indirectly heat the feedstock 104 for the pyrolysis reaction. In some embodiments, the feedstock 104 can be indirectly heated by inducing a surface current on a reaction chamber 110. In some embodiments, the feedstock 104 can be indirectly heated by heating a media 1612 within the reaction chamber 110. The heated media 1612 can, in turn, heat the feedstock 104 via thermal conduction and/or infrared radiation.

[210] In some embodiments, the one or more reaction chambers 110 can include at least a first set 314 of reaction chambers and a second set 314 of reaction chambers. The first set 314 of reaction chambers can be heated independently of the second set 314 of reaction chambers. Similarly, in some embodiments, a reaction chamber 1110 can include at least a first portion 1114a and a second portion 1114b and each portion can be heated independently.

[211] In some embodiments, the method 2200 can further involve heating the one or more reaction chambers 110 and using the one or more heated reaction chambers 110 to heat the feedstock 104 via one or more of thermal conduction or infrared radiation.

[212] At 2230, the heat provided to the one or more reaction chambers 110 can be adjusted to sustain the pyrolysis reaction. In some embodiments, operating data representative of the pyrolysis reaction within the one or more reaction chambers 110 can be captured. For example, one or more sensors 1442 can be placed around the reaction chamber 110 to capture operating data of the pyrolysis reaction.

[213] A heating profile of the reaction chamber 110 can be controlled based on the captured operating data. The heating profile can be adjusted by adjusting the operation of the heating component 120 and/or the electrical generator 130. As a result, the pyrolysis reaction within the reaction chamber 110 can be controlled.

[214] In some embodiments, the heating component 120 can be cooled. For example, the heating component 120 can be tubular. In some embodiments, the tubular heating component 120 can form a coil. Coolant can be circulated within the tubes to cool the heating component 120. In some embodiments, the feedstock 104 can be used as the coolant. Thus, the feedstock 104 can be preheated prior to injection in the reaction chamber 110. Alternatively, or in addition, the feedstock 104 can be preheated using heat from gaseous pyrolytic products, such as heat exchanger 1740 of FIG. 17.

[215] In some embodiments, the method 2200 can further involve controlling injection of the feedstock 104 based on the operating data. For example, one or more of a composition, a volume, a flow, a pressure, or a temperature of the feedstock 104 can be adjusted. [216] In some embodiments, the method 2200 can further involve controlling extraction of particles 106 produced from the pyrolysis reaction. For example, the method 2200 can involve controlling the operation of skimmer 1728. The skimmer 1728 can remove a portion of media 1612 within the reaction chamber 110. At least some of the removed media 1612 can include particles 106 produced from the pyrolysis reaction.

[217] In some embodiments, the method 2200 can further involve cleaning pyrolytic particles 106, such as carbon particles for example, from an inner surface of the reaction chamber 110. The carbon particles 106 can be produced from the pyrolysis reaction. For example, a cleaning substance can be injected in the reaction chamber 110 to clean the inner surface of the reaction chamber 110. In some embodiments, cleaning roads can be inserted in the reaction chamber 110 to clean the inner surface of the reaction chamber 110. In some embodiments, media 1612 filling the reaction chamber 110 can be used to clean the inner surface of the reaction chamber 110.

[218] It will be appreciated that numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the example embodiments described herein. However, it will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that the embodiments described herein may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, well-known methods, procedures and components have not been described in detail so as not to obscure the embodiments described herein. Furthermore, this description and the drawings are not to be considered as limiting the scope of the embodiments described herein in any way, but rather as merely describing the implementation of the various embodiments described herein.

[219] It should also be noted that the terms “coupled” or “coupling” as used herein can have several different meanings depending in the context in which these terms are used. For example, the terms coupled or coupling may be used to indicate that an element or device can electrically, optically, or wirelessly send data to another element or device as well as receive data from another element or device. Furthermore, the term “coupled” may indicate that two elements can be directly coupled to one another or coupled to one another through one or more intermediate elements.

[220] It should be noted that terms of degree such as "substantially", "about" and "approximately" when used herein mean a reasonable amount of deviation of the modified term such that the end result is not significantly changed. These terms of degree should be construed as including a deviation of the modified term if this deviation would not negate the meaning of the term it modifies.

[221] In addition, as used herein, the wording “and/or” is intended to represent an inclusive-or. That is, “X and/or Y” is intended to mean X or Y or both, for example. As a further example, “X, Y, and/or Z” is intended to mean X or Y or Z or any combination thereof.

[222] Furthermore, any recitation of numerical ranges by endpoints herein includes all numbers and fractions subsumed within that range (e.g., 1 to 5 includes 1 , 1.5, 2, 2.75, 3, 3.90, 4, and 5). It is also to be understood that all numbers and fractions thereof are presumed to be modified by the term "about" which means a variation of up to a certain amount of the number to which reference is being made if the end result is not significantly changed.

[223] The terms "an embodiment," "embodiment," "embodiments," "the embodiment," "the embodiments," "one or more embodiments," "some embodiments," and "one embodiment" mean "one or more (but not all) embodiments of the present invention(s)," unless expressly specified otherwise.

[224] The terms "including," "comprising" and variations thereof mean "including but not limited to," unless expressly specified otherwise. A listing of items does not imply that any or all of the items are mutually exclusive, unless expressly specified otherwise. The terms "a," "an" and "the" mean "one or more," unless expressly specified otherwise.

[225] The embodiments of the systems and methods described herein may be implemented in hardware or software, or a combination of both. These embodiments may be implemented in computer programs executing on programmable computers, each computer including at least one processor, a data storage system (including volatile memory or non-volatile memory or other data storage elements or a combination thereof), and at least one communication interface. For example, and without limitation, the programmable computers (referred to below as computing devices) may be a server, network appliance, embedded device, computer expansion module, a personal computer, laptop, personal data assistant, cellular telephone, smart-phone device, tablet computer, a wireless device or any other computing device capable of being configured to carry out the methods described herein. [226] In some embodiments, the communication interface may be a network communication interface. In embodiments in which elements are combined, the communication interface may be a software communication interface, such as those for inter-process communication (IPC). In still other embodiments, there may be a combination of communication interfaces implemented as hardware, software, and combination thereof.

[227] Program code may be applied to input data to perform the functions described herein and to generate output information. The output information is applied to one or more output devices, in known fashion.

[228] Each program may be implemented in a high-level procedural or object oriented programming and/or scripting language, or both, to communicate with a computer system. However, the programs may be implemented in assembly or machine language, if desired. In any case, the language may be a compiled or interpreted language. Each such computer program may be stored on a storage media or a device (e.g., ROM, magnetic disk, optical disc) readable by a general or special purpose programmable computer, for configuring and operating the computer when the storage media or device is read by the computer to perform the procedures described herein. Embodiments of the system may also be considered to be implemented as a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium, configured with a computer program, where the storage medium so configured causes a computer to operate in a specific and predefined manner to perform the functions described herein.

[229] Furthermore, the system, processes and methods of the described embodiments are capable of being distributed in a computer program product comprising a computer readable medium that bears computer usable instructions for one or more processors. The medium may be provided in various forms, including one or more diskettes, compact disks, tapes, chips, wireline transmissions, satellite transmissions, internet transmission or downloadings, magnetic and electronic storage media, digital and analog signals, and the like. The computer useable instructions may also be in various forms, including compiled and non-compiled code.

[230] Various embodiments have been described herein by way of example only. Various modification and variations may be made to these example embodiments without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention, which is limited only by the appended claims.

Claims

CLAIMS:

1 . A system for producing hydrogen gas, the system comprising:

- a reactor including one or more reaction chambers, each of the one or more reaction chambers configured to receive a feedstock into the reaction chamber, the feedstock comprising a hydrogen compound, the reactor configured to convert at least a portion of the feedstock to hydrogen gas via a pyrolysis reaction;

- at least one heating component coupled to the one or more reaction chambers, the at least one heating component operable to provide heat to the one or more reaction chambers to indirectly heat the feedstock; and

- at least one electrical generator operable to power the at least one heating component.

2. The system of claim 1 , wherein:

- the at least one heating component operable to provide heat to the one or more reaction chambers comprise the at least one heating component being operable to heat the one or more reaction chambers; and

- the one or more heated reaction chambers heating the feedstock via one or more of thermal conduction or infrared radiation.

3. The system of any one of claims 1 or 2, wherein:

- the at least one heating component operable to provide heat to the one or more reaction chambers comprise the at least one heating component being operable to heat a media within the one or more reaction chambers; and

- the heated media heating the feedstock via one or more of thermal conduction or infrared radiation.

4. The system of any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the one or more reaction chambers comprise a plurality of reaction tubes.

5. The system of claim 4, wherein: - the plurality of reaction tubes comprise a plurality of sets of reaction tubes; and

- the at least one heating component comprises one or more heating components for each set of reaction tubes.

6. The system of any one of claims 4 or 5, wherein one or more reaction tubes of the plurality of reaction tubes comprise at least one neck portion having a narrower diameter than non-neck portions of the one or more reaction tubes, wherein the narrower diameter of the at least one neck portion causes the pyrolysis reaction within the non-neck portion upstream of the at least one neck portion to accelerate and the pyrolysis reaction within the non-neck portion downstream of the at least one neck portion to decelerate.

7. The system of claim 6, wherein the reaction tube comprises an insulation element at the at least one neck portion.

8. The system of any one of claims 6 or 7, wherein the at least one heating component is coupled to the non-neck portions of the one or more reaction tubes.

9. The system of any one of claims 4 to 8, wherein the at least one heating component comprise at least one solenoid coil operable to induce a surface current on the plurality of reaction tubes.

10. The system of claim 9, wherein the at least one solenoid coil comprises a plurality of coil portions, the plurality of coil portions comprising at least a first coil portion and a second coil portion.

11 . The system of claim 10, wherein the second coil portion has one or more of a different coil pitch or a different winding density than the first coil portion.

12. The system of any one of claims 10 or 11 , wherein at least one electrical generator comprises a plurality of electrical generators, the second coil portion being powered by a different electrical generator of the plurality of electrical generators than that of the first coil portion.

13. The system of any one of claims 10 or 11 , wherein at least the first coil portion and the second coil portion are connected in parallel to the at least one electrical generator.

14. The system of any one of claims 10 or 13, wherein one or more reaction tubes of the plurality of reaction tubes comprise an inlet portion and an outlet portion, a portion of the solenoid coil at the inlet portion having one or more of a higher coil pitch or a higher winding density than a portion of the solenoid coil at the outlet portion.

15. The system of any one of claims 9 to 14, wherein the solenoid coil comprises a tube and coolant therein the tube.

16. The system of claim 15, wherein the coolant comprises the feedstock, the feedstock being preheated by the solenoid coil prior to injection into the reaction chamber.

17. The system of any one of claims 9 to 16, wherein the solenoid coil is formed of a refractory metal or alloy operable at high temperatures.

18. The system of any one of claims 4 to 17, further comprising at least one insulation layer covering the plurality of reaction tubes.

19. The system of claim 18, wherein the at least one insulation layer further covers the at least one heating component.

20. The system of any one of claims 18 or 19, wherein a plurality of holes are defined through the at least one insulation layer for coupling one or more sensors to the plurality of reaction tubes.

21 . The system of any one of claims 1 to 20, wherein the one or more reaction chambers comprise a material capable of dissipating electromagnetic energy.

22. The system of claim 21 , wherein the material capable of dissipating electromagnetic energy forms at least one jacket covering the one or more reaction chambers.

23. The system of claim 21 , wherein the material capable of dissipating electromagnetic energy is embedded within sidewalls of the one or more reaction chambers.

24. The system of any one of claims 21 to 23 when dependent from claim 3, wherein the media within the one or more reaction chambers comprises the material capable of dissipating electromagnetic energy.

25. The system of any one of claims 1 to 24, wherein the one or more reaction chambers comprise a hard coating on an inner surface of the one or more reaction chambers.

26. The system of claim 3, wherein:

- the reactor comprises a circulating bed reactor comprising one or more inner tubes within the one or more reaction chambers; and

- the at least one heating component comprises an inner tube of the one or more inner tubes.

27. The system of claim 26, wherein at least one electrical generator is coupled to the inner tube and the reaction chamber.

28. The system of claim 26, wherein:

- the one or more inner tubes within the one or more reaction chambers comprise at least a first and a second inner tube, the second inner tube being coaxial with the first inner tube along at least a portion of the first inner tube; and the at least one heating component comprises the first inner tube and the second inner tube.

29. The system of any one of claims 26 to 28, wherein the one or more reaction chambers further comprise at least one heat exchanger operable to transfer heat from hydrogen gas generated by the pyrolysis reaction to the feedstock prior to injection into the reaction chamber.

30. The system of claim 29, wherein the at least one heat exchanger comprises a counter flow heat exchanger.

31 . The system of any one of claims 26 to 29, wherein one or more reaction chambers comprise at least one skimmer operable to remove a portion of media from within the reaction chamber, at least some of the removed media comprising carbon particles produced from the pyrolysis reaction.

32. The system of any one of claims 1 or 2, wherein the one or more reaction chambers comprise a body with a plurality of channels formed therein.

33. The system of claim 32, wherein the plurality of channels are formed vertically within the body.

34. The system of any one of claims 29 to 33, wherein the body is formed of an electrically lossy material.

35. The system of any one of claims 29 to 34, wherein the at least one heating component comprise a plurality of electrodes.

36. The system of claim 35, wherein the plurality of electrodes are positioned on an outer surface of the body.

37. The system of claim 35, wherein the plurality of electrodes are embedded within the body.

38. The system of any one of claims 35 to 37, wherein the plurality of electrodes are electrically insulated to provide a capacitive coupling.

39. The system of any one of claims 32 to 38, further comprising a cleaning device to remove carbon particles from an inner surface of the channels, the carbon particles being produced from the pyrolysis reaction.

40. The system of claim 39, wherein the cleaning device comprises at least one cleaning rod insertable in the channels.

41 . The system of any one of claims 39 or 40, wherein the cleaning device is configured to inject a cleaning substance through the channels.

42. The system of any one of claims 1 to 41 , further comprising:

- at least one sensor configured to capture operating data representative of the pyrolysis reaction within the one or more reaction chambers; and

- at least one processor configured to control a heating profile of the reactor based on the operating data.

43. The system of claim 42, wherein the at least one processor being configured to control the heating profile of the reactor comprises the at least one processor being configured to apply a machine-learning model to identify control parameters that optimize one or more of an energy usage per unit of the pyrolytic product produced, pyrolytic product production, maintenance duration, maintenance frequency, feedstock conversion, or any combination thereof.

44. The system of any one of claims 42 to 43, wherein the at least one processor being configured to control the heating profile of the reactor comprises the at least one processor being configured to control one or more of the at least one electrical generator, the at least one heating component, injection of the feedstock, or extraction of carbon particles based on the operating data.

45. The system of claim 44, wherein the at least one processor being configured to control injection of the feedstock comprises the at least one processor being configured to adjust one or more of a composition, a volume, a flow, a pressure, or a temperature of the feedstock.

46. The system of any one of claims 42 to 45, wherein the at least one sensor comprises a plurality of optical sensors around the reaction chamber.

47. The system of any one of claims 1 to 46, wherein the feedstock comprises one or more of ammonia or a hydrocarbon gas.

48. The system of claim 47, wherein the hydrocarbon gas comprises one or more of methane, natural gas, or a hydrocarbon gas derived from biomass.

49. The system of any one of claims 1 to 48, wherein the at least one electrical generator comprise one or more of a radio frequency (RF) generator, an alternating current (AC) generator, a microwave generator, or a millimeter wave generator.

50. A method of producing hydrogen gas, the method comprising:

- injecting a feedstock into a reactor, the feedstock comprising a hydrogen compound, the reactor comprising one or more reaction chambers, the reactor being configured to convert at least a portion of the feedstock to hydrogen gas via a pyrolysis reaction;

- providing heat to the one or more reaction chambers to indirectly heat the feedstock for the pyrolysis reaction; and

- adjusting the heat provided to the one or more reaction chambers to sustain the pyrolysis reaction.

51 . The method of claim 50, further comprising:

- heating the one or more reaction chambers; and

- using the one or more heated reaction chambers to heat the feedstock via one or more of thermal conduction or infrared radiation.

52. The method of claim 50 or 51 comprising:

- heating a media within the one or more reaction chambers; and

- using the heated media to heat the feedstock via one or more of thermal conduction or infrared radiation.

53. The method of any one of claims 50 to 52, wherein:

- the one or more reaction chambers comprise at least a first set of reaction chambers and a second set of reaction chambers; and

- the method comprises heating the first set of reaction chambers of the plurality of reaction chambers independently of heating the second set of reaction chambers of the plurality of reaction chambers.

54. The method of any one of claims 50 to 53 comprising inducing a surface current on the one or more reaction chambers.

55. The method of any one of claims 50 to 54, further comprising:

- capturing operating data representative of the pyrolysis reaction within the one or more reaction chambers; and

- controlling a heating profile of the one or more reaction chambers based on the operating data.

56. The method of any one of claims 50 to 55, further comprising one or more of:

- controlling injection of the feedstock based on the operating data;

- adjusting the heat provided to the one or more reaction chambers by at least one heating component and at least one electrical generator; or

- controlling extraction of carbon particles produced from the pyrolysis reaction.

57. The method of claim 56, wherein controlling injection of the feedstock comprises adjusting one or more of a composition, a volume, a flow, a pressure, or a temperature of the feedstock.

58. The method of any one of claims 50 to 57, wherein the feedstock comprises one or more of ammonia or a hydrocarbon gas.

59. The method of claim 58, wherein the hydrocarbon gas comprises one or more of methane, natural gas, or a hydrocarbon gas derived from biomass.

60. The method of any one of claims 50 to 59, further comprising preheating the feedstock prior to injection into the reactor.

61 . The method of claim 60, wherein preheating the feedstock comprises using heat from hydrogen gas generated by the pyrolysis reaction.

62. The method of any one of claims 60 or 61 , further comprising cooling at least one heating component operable to provide heat to the one or more reaction chambers.

63. The method of any one of claims 50 to 62, further comprising skimming a portion of media from within the reaction chamber, at least some of the skimmed media comprising carbon particles being produced from the pyrolysis reaction.

64. The method of any one of claims 50 to 63, further comprising cleaning carbon particles from an inner surface of the one or more reaction chambers, the carbon particles being produced from the pyrolysis reaction.

65. The method of claim 64, wherein cleaning carbon particles from an inner surface of the one or more reaction chambers comprises injecting a cleaning substance in the one or more reaction chambers.