WO2021102581A1 - Surface coating - Google Patents

Abstract

A metallic surface is treated by applying a polymer coating. The polymer coating may include one or more block polyethylene glycol-polypropylene glycol copolymers, or a mixture of homopolymers of polyethylene glycol and polypropylene glycol. The coated surface is heated at or above 125°C, and an electrical bias applied across the coating sufficient to produce electron flow before cooling the coated surface.

Description

SURFACE COATING

TECHNICAL FIELD

[0001] Coatings applied to metal.

BACKGROUND

[0002] Printed Circuit Boards found in electronic and electrical devices typically consist of a flat substrate sheet made of a smooth, stiff fiberglass, glass, epoxy, ceramic or other electrically inert material. This sheet varies in thickness depending on application, from about 0.2mm to about 6 mm.

[0003] During standard manufacture of the bare PCB, a uniform layer of copper, gold or other conductive metal is bonded to the substrate, on one or both sides of the substrate sheet. The thickness of the metal is dependent on circuit requirements, but typically varies from about 0.035 mm to 0.14 mm. The bare board is then supplied to electronics manufacturers for use in manufacture of electronic circuitry.

[0004] To create a finished, printed electronic circuit from the bare board, the electronic manufacturer utilizes various etching processes to remove the metal in all areas except where circuit traces will occur, then components such as resistors, capacitors etc. are placed on the board and various additional steps of manufacture take place to complete the board.

[0005] Existing PCBs are simply supplied to the end-user manufacturer as bare metal on substrate. There is no step taken to prevent degradation of the metal over time. Circuit manufacturers have developed various processes to protect the completed board on an after-the-fact basis.

[0006] The US Department of Defense MilSpec Standard 883E - 1005.8 (Steady-

State Life) is a test performed for the purpose of demonstrating the quality or reliability of devices subjected to the specified conditions over an extended time period. According to this standard, when this test is employed for the purpose of assessing the general capability of a device or for device qualification tests in support of future device applications requiring high reliability, the test conditions should be selected so as to represent the maximum operating or testing ratings of the device in terms of electrical input(s), load and bias and the corresponding maximum operating or testing temperature or other specified environment. For class level B, the life test duration, when accelerated, shall be the time equivalent to 1,000 hours at 125°C for the ambient temperature selected or specified. Within 72 hours after the specified duration of the test, the device shall be removed from the specified test conditions and allowed to reach standard test conditions without removal of bias. The interruption of bias for up to one minute for the purpose of moving the devices to cool-down positions separate from the chamber within which life testing was performed shall not be considered removal of bias.

[0007] WO 2018005997 discloses stabilizing an electrical contact by coating an electrical contact surface with a telechelic polypropylene glycol-polyethylene glycol multi-block polymer and then curing the telechelic polypropylene glycol-polyethylene glycol multi-block polymer using UV light. WO 2018005997 discloses that the telechelic polypropylene glycol-polyethylene glycol multi-block polymer may be selected from the group consisting of diacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, dimethacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, diacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycols, dimethacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycols, diacrylate polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, dimethacrylate polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block- polyethylene glycols, diacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block- polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, dimethacrylate polypropylene glycol- block-polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, diacrylate polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol- block-polypropylene glycols, dimethacrylate polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycols, and combinations thereof. This group is referred to in the present document as the “WO 2018005997 claimed range”.

[0008] In an example, WO 2018005997 discloses forming PEG-Z>-PPG-Z>-PEG dimethacrylate (“PPPDI”) using the synthesis pathway shown in the below formula:

[0009] As disclosed in WO 2018005997, PEG-Z>-PPG-Z>-PEG dimethacrylate was synthesized as follows: PEG-Z>-PPG-Z>-PEG (Mn~8,400 g/mol) (168 g, 0.020 mol) was transferred into a three-neck round bottom flask and dissolved in 100 mL anhydrous tetrahydrofuran (THF). Then, triethylamine (4.86 g, 0.048 mol) was added to the solution at 0 °C. Methacryloyl chloride (5.00 g, 0.048 mol) was dissolved in 24 mL anhydrous THF and added dropwise to the PEG- -PPG- -PEG solution by dropping funnel under nitrogen atmosphere. Hereafter, the mixture was stirred for 24 h at room temperature to complete the reaction. Vacuum filtration later was used to separate the insoluble triethylamine hydrochloride salts from the resultant mixture. The filtrate was passed through the column filled with neutral alumina to remove the excess residue of triethylamine. Finally, solvent was evaporated and the purified polymer was dried further in a vacuum oven at room temperature for 24 h. This synthesis pathway for the preparation of PEG-Z>-PPG-Z>-PEG dimethacrylate is shown in the above formula.

[0010] In WO2018005997 a block copolymer PEG-6-PPG-6-PEG dimethacrylate was synthesized to minimize the contact resistance between two co-operating metal contact surfaces, and hence improve the signal transmission in between. It was found that the resistance of this insulating polymer dramatically decreases to around 60 W when the film thickness reaches 35.7 nm at 298 K, which greatly grants the usage of this material in metal contacts. Moreover, the high conductivity of ultrathin PPPDI film is ascribed to the electrons emitted by high applied electric field. A non-Ohmic conductivity behavior has been observed on thin PPPDI film in the thickness range between 35.7 and 141.2 nm regardless of measuring temperature. The study about the effects of the film thickness and measuring temperature on the current density-electric field characteristics has revealed that the logarithm of the current density is linearly dependent on the square root of electric field in the non-Ohmic region for each thickness and temperature. Also, this linearity is independent of the thickness value in the studied range. Additionally, this material exhibited higher conductivity at higher temperature, arising from the higher thermal energy of electrons. A comparison between the coefficient value of log(J) vs. E^½ from experimental results and theoretically derived values from Schottky and Poole- Frenkel emission indicated that the conductivity of PPPDI is more likely to be Schottky emission. The linear relationship between log(J/T²) and 1/T further confirmed the occurrence of Schottky emission in thin PPPDI films.

[0011] All disclosures of WO 2018005997 may also be applied to the present application.

SUMMARY

[0012] There is provided in one embodiment a method of treating a metallic surface. A polymer coating is applied to the metallic surface. The polymer coating comprising one or more block polyethylene glycol-polypropylene glycol copolymers or comprising a mixture of homopolymers of polyethylene glycol and polypropylene glycol. The coated surface is heated at or above 125°C. An electrical bias is applied across the coating sufficient to produce electron flow before cooling the coated surface.

[0013] In various embodiments, there may be included any one or more of the following features in various combinations: the polymer coating is selectively applied to portions of the surface using photolithography; before applying the polymer coating, an oleophobic coating is selectively applied to portions of the surface where the polymer coating is not desired; the oleophobic coating is selectively applied using photolithography; the oleophobic coating is selectively applied by the steps of: applying a photoresist, selectively illuminating the photoresist, applying a solvent to remove portions of the photoresist according to the selective illumination, applying the oleophobic coating, and removing the remaining photoresist; before applying the polymer coating, applying a coating of a metal oxide to the metallic surface; the metal oxide may be less than 20 nm thick; the metal oxide may be sufficiently thin to permit quantum tunneling through the metal oxide; applying the polymer coating in combination with an interfacial tension reduction agent; the interfacial tension reduction agent is a low interfacial tension fluid applied to the surface before applying the polymer coating; the low interfacial tension fluid is isopropyl alcohol (IP A); the interfacial tension reduction agent is a surfactant; the surfactant forms a surface layer on the polymer coating material surface; the surfactant acts as a Langmuir monomolecular wetting agent on the polymer coating material surface; the surfactant is an amphiphile; the surfactant is a three-tailed amphiphile; the surfactant is ferric stearate; the surfactant forms a bi-molecular layer on the polymer coating surface; the surfactant lowers the interfacial tension by forming a microemulsion; the polymer coating is applied by mechanical application; the polymer coating is applied by spin coating; the polymer coating is applied by vapor deposition; the polymer coating is polymerized in situ on the metallic surface; the coating is applied by successive vapor deposition of a first monomer precursor and a second monomer precursor to the surface; each of the monomer precursors is supplied to a deposition chamber from a preheating chamber where the monomer precursor exists as a vapor in an inert gas, and the vapor is deposited on the surface in the deposition chamber; the monomer precursors each have a vapor pressure in a range of lOOmT to 250mT in the preheating chamber before being supplied to the deposition chamber; the monomer precursors each have a concentration in the deposition chamber during the deposition process that corresponds to a concentration generated, in a deposition chamber of an MVD® molecular vapor deposition equipment as manufactured by SPTS Technologies Ltd., from a single vapor pulse input from the preheating chamber to the deposition chamber, where the vapor pressure of the monomer precursor is in a range of lOOmT to 250mT in the preheating chamber; the metallic surface is at a temperature in a range of 125-215 °C during the step of applying the polymer coating by vapor deposition the metallic surface is at a temperature in a range of 150-205 °C during the step of applying the polymer coating by vapor deposition; the vapor deposition occurs within a gas phase material comprising the deposited vapor in a proportion of 40-95% of the total gas phase material by weight; the deposited vapor has a density greater than 10 x 10⁶ particles per m3; the vapor deposition occurs at a temperature of at least 195°C; forming the metallic surface before vapor deposition of the polymer coating in the same deposition chamber; the metallic surface comprises a metal containing less than 0.0005% oxygen by weight; the metal is applied in an inert gas environment; the metal is applied in a high vacuum environment; the metallic surface is formed on a fiberglass, glass or ceramic substrate; a voltage of -50v dc is applied to the metallic surface during vapor deposition to act as an attractant to the vapor; the electrical bias is applied between the treated surface and an adjacent conductor; the adjacent conductor is a conductive film applied above the treated surface; the conductive film is a transparent conductor; the electrical bias is applied between two treated surfaces placed in contact with each other; the method carried out entirely in an oxygen-free manufacturing environment; cooling the surface to room temperature in the oxygen free manufacturing environment; sealing the surface in packaging in the oxygen free manufacturing environment; the step of heating the metallic surface at or above 125°C comprises heating the metal at 195°C or higher; the metallic surface is heated at 195°C or higher for a duration of two hours; the step of heating the metallic surface at or above 125°C comprises heating the metal at 215°Cthe surface is a surface of a nanowire; the surface is a surface of a micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) device; the surface is a surface of a circuit board; the metallic surface comprises tin, beryllium, silver or gold; the tin, beryllium, silver or gold comprises a layer bonded to a copper substrate; the circuit board has two sides each comprising respective metal surfaces; the polymer coating comprises the one or more block polyethylene glycol- polypropylene glycol copolymers, each of the block polyethylene glycol-polypropylene glycol copolymers comprising polyethylene glycol in the range of 2% to 98% per weight, and polypropylene glycol in the range of 2% to 98% per weight; and the one or more polymers of the polymer coating are terminated with methacrylate or dimethacrylate groups; the polymer coating comprises a telechelic polypropylene glycol — polyethylene glycol multi-block polymer selected from the group consisting of diacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, dimethacrylate polypropylene glycol- block-polyethylene glycols, diacrylate polypropylene glycol-blockpoly ethylene glycol- block-polypropylene glycols, dimethacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycols, diacrylate polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, dimethacrylate polyethylene glycol-block- polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, diacrylate polypropylene glycol-block- polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, dimethacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, diacrylate polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycols, dimethacrylate polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block- polypropylene glycols, and combinations thereof. The polymer coating may comprises PEG- -PPG- -PEG dimethacrylate. Any of the methods descrived above may be used to coat a surface in audio equipment to reduce harmonic distortion.

[0014] There is provided in another embodiment a coated surface formed by any of the methods described above.

[0015] There is provided in another embodiment a metallic surface infused with a dimethacrylate polymer coating.

[0016] There is provided in another embodiment a metallic surface comprising a metal dimethacrylate.

[0017] These and other aspects of the method and composition are set out in the claims, which are incorporated here by reference.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0018] Embodiments will now be described with reference to the figures, in which like reference characters denote like elements, by way of example, and in which: [0019] Fig. 1 is a flow chart showing a method of treating a metal surface.

[0020] Fig, 2 is a flow chart showing a surfactant being added to the polymer coating before applying the polymer coating to a metallic surface.

[0021] Fig. 3 is a flow chart showing a fluid with low interfacial tension being applied to a metallic surface before applying a polymer coating.

[0022] Fig. 4 is a flow chart showing a step of applying a metal oxide to a metallic surface before applying a polymer coating.

[0023] Fig. 5 is a flow chart showing a method of selectively applying a polymer coating by first selectively applying an oleophobic coating using photlithography techniques.

[0024] Fig. 6 is a flow chart showing a method of forming a polymer coating by vapor deposition of monomers and in situ polymerization.

[0025] Fig. 7 is a schematic diagram showing an arrangement of surfaces with polymer coatings for applying electrical bias across the polymer coating.

[0026] Fig. 8 is a schematic diagram showing an arrangement of a treated surface with a conductive film for applying electrical bias across the polymer coating.

[0027] Fig. 9 is a schematic diagram showing a polymer coating on a nanowire. [0028] Fig. 10 is a schematic diagram showing a polymer coating on a MEMS device.

[0029] Fig. 11 is a schematic diagram showing a polymer coating material infused within a metal surface to form a metal dimethacrylate layer.

[0030] Fig. 12 is a schematic diagram showing an exemplary double-sided circuit board having a polymer coating on both sides.

[0031] Fig. 13 is a schematic diagram showing an exemplary process of manufacturing a protected circuit board.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0032] Immaterial modifications may be made to the embodiments described here without departing from what is covered by the claims.

[0033] A block copolymer of propylene glycol and polyethylene glycol, or a mixture of homopolymers of polyethylene glycol and polypropylene glycol, or a combination of such copolymers and homopolymers, is referred to in this document as polymer coating material. The block copolymers(s) may include in the range of 2% to 98% by weight of each of polypropylene glycol and polyethylene glycol. The material may be a telechelic polypropylene glycol-polyethylene glycol multi-block polymer, for example in the W02018005997 claimed range. It may be, for example, PEG-Z>-PPG-Z>- PEG dimethacrylate (“PPPDI”). Specific tests described in the detailed description of the present document were carried out using PPPDI as the polymer coating material and using mechanical application of the liquid polymer coating.

[0034] Fig. 1 is a flow chart showing a method of treating a metal surface. In step

20, polymer coating material is applied to a bare conductive metal, which may be any of copper, silver, gold, tin, beryllium, aluminum or other metals used in the manufacture of electronic circuit boards and connectors. Once the material is applied, or during the application of the material, in step 22 a temperature at or above 125°C is applied to the coated surface. The high temperature may be applied for an extended period of time. In one example, the procedures of US-DoD standard 883E - 1005.8 (Steady State Life) are applied in the heating step. For example, 125°C may be applied for 1000 hours. Preferably, a higher temperature is applied over a smaller time period. In an example, a temperature of at least 195°C is applied. In a test, the temperature was applied for 2 hours at 195°C. A temperature of up to 215°C may be possible as the material breaks down at 220°C. It is believed 5 minutes may be sufficient at 215°C. In step 24, an electrical bias is applied to the polymer coating material, for example by supplying a relative voltage to two contacts the polymer coating material is sandwiched between, or by applying a conductive film over the polymer coating material and supplying a voltage to the conductive film relative to the metal substrate. The conductive film may optionally be a transparent conductive film. The electrical bias is applied during the heating step. The electrical bias is believed to accelerate the process but some benefit may be obtained without the electrical bias. After the heating including the application of the bias, the surface may be allowed to cool-down in step26 . An oxygen free environment may optionally be used for the heating step and for the cooling.

[0035] This treatment has been found to produce a molecular surface that displays improved conductivity and reduction or elimination of degradation of the metal over time. Extended lifetime testing, described below, shows a 31 to 49% improvement in conductivity over nonprotected boards.

[0036] The polymer coating material may be a liquid when applied to the metal.

The polymer coating liquid is hydrophobic and must have its interfacial tension reduced in order to bond properly with the metal surface. The liquid coating material may be applied mechanically, for example by spin coating.

[0037] The following techniques are contemplated for reducing the interfacial tension of the polymer coating material. For example, a surfactant may be added. The surfactant may form a surface layer on the polymer coating material surface. It may for example act as a Langmuir monomolecular wetting agent on the polymer coating material surface. The surfactant may lower the surface tension of the liquid to about 20mN/m. In another example, the surfactant may be an amphiphile, which may for example form a bi-molecular layer on the polymer coating surface. The amphiphile may be a three-tailed amphiphile, for example ferric stearate. The applicant has found, through measurement of capillary wave amplitudes using diffuse scattering of X-rays, that a bi- molecular later of preformed ferric stearate on the polymer coating material surface lowers the surface tension to about lmN/m. In another example, the surfactant lowers the surface tension by forming a microemulsion. The microemulsion can make the interfacial tension go to ImN/m but changes the initial polymer coating composition. The surfactant may be removed in a later step of the process. As shown in Fig. 2, in step 40 the surfactant may be added to the liquid polymer coating, and in step 42 polymer coating, including surfactant, applied to the metallic surface.

[0038] In a further example, a fluid with low interfacial tension may be applied to the metal surface before applying the polymer coating. An example is isopropyl alcohol (IP A). As shown in Fig. 3, in step 50 a fluid with low interfacial tension may be applied to the metallic surface, and in step 52 the polymer coating applied to the metallic surface. [0039] Bonding of the polymer coating material to the metal substrate may be enhanced by first applying a coating of silicon oxide or other metal oxides to the metal substrate surface. The metal oxide may be less than 20 nm thick. The metal oxide may be less than 1 nm thick. The metal oxide may be provided in a sufficiently thin layer that it does not prevent quantum tunneling through the metal oxide layer. As shown in Fig. 4, in step 60 a metal oxide may be applied to the metallic surface, for example by deposition or by oxidation of the surface, and in step 62 the polymer coating may be applied to the metal oxide.

[0040] To prevent the polymer coating material from bonding to areas of the surface where it is not desired, an oleophobic coating may be applied to areas of the surface where the polymer coating is not desired. The polymer coating may then be applied and it will not bond with the oleophobic-coated areas. The oleophobic coating can then be removed if required. In order to selectively place the oleophobic coating where the polymer coating is not desired, photomasking techniques may be used. For example, as shown in Fig. 5, in step 70 a photoresist may be applied to the board and in step 72 selectively illuminated using a photomask. In step 74 the photoresist in the masked areas may be dissolved by solvent, in the case of a negative photoresist, or in the unmasked areas, in the case of a positive photoresist. In an example embodiment, a negative photoresist is used. In step 76 the oleophobic coating may be applied to the whole board, and will not bond to the photoresist. The remaining photoresist may be removed in step 78 to provide clean sites to apply the polymer coating in step 80. Alternatively the polymer coating may be restricted to selected areas by selectively curing it with UV light using a photomask, and removing uncured polymer coating using a solvent. [0041] At distances smaller than about 50nm, the polymer coating displays electrical conduction. Beyond lOOnm, the polymer coating becomes nonconductive. This state-switching effect is of value to circuits involving the polymer. However, when in the nonconductive (ie. >100nm) state, the polymer also naturally displays capacitive and dielectric effects, thus allowing AC signals to “leak” between traces if the polymer material is allowed to be deposited between traces. These leakage effects are detrimental to high frequency signals in an active electrical circuit, and may be avoided by controlling the positions of the polymer coating as described above, in order to avoid depositing it between traces.

[0042] The polymer coating material may be applied by vapor deposition. The vapor deposition process may be a molecular vapor deposition using conventional molecular vapor deposition equipment, for example MVD® equipment as manufactured by SPTS Technologies Ltd. This equipment comprises an oxygen-free C02 or nitrogen- filled preheating chamber and an adjacent deposition chamber held at vacuum. The polymer molecule may be assembled in situ, directly on the metal, from its precursor monomers. A custom program sequence may be engaged as follows as shown in Fig. 6: in step 100, a liquid monomer precursor is heated to evaporation in the oxygen-free preheating chamber. The monomer vapor may be produced in the pre-heating chamber with vapor pressure in a range of lOOmT to 250mT. This step may be carried out for example at a temperature of 100°C. In step 102, the vapor is drawn off the top of the heated cylinder by vacuum pulse into the deposition chamber, where the target substrate metal or circuit board is present. The target substrate may be heated to for example between 35 and 170°C. In an example, the deposition may be combined with the heating step. The substrate may in this case be heated in the range of 125°C to 215°C. In step 104, when sufficient monomer has been drawn into the deposition chamber, the evaporation chamber is closed. In step 105, the monomer material is allowed to bond to the substrate while being held at temperature. In step 106, the deposition chamber may be pulsed down to vacuum again. The process of steps 1-4 is repeated for any other monomers in the polymer molecule, switching monomers in step 108. The monomers may form the polymer on the circuit board bonding (deposition) step. The sequentially deposited materials may be allowed to cross link while the substrate is cooling. [0043] This pulsed process allows high uniformity and conformality over very irregular surfaces. For instance, the polymer coating material may be applied to nanowires of integrated circuits as well as devices in MEMS chips (micro electromechanical systems). Fig. 9 schematically shows a polymer coating 142 on a nanowire 140 and Fig. 10 schematically shows a polymer coating 152 on a MEMS device 150.

[0044] The above vapor deposition process may be applied after applying an oleophobic coating where the polymer coating is not desired, e.g. between traces. The oleophobic coating can now be removed by appropriate solvents if required.

[0045] Various parameters may be controlled by custom programming, for example:

[0046] Dose: Measured in pressure in the preheating chamber which eventually leads to a pressure in the deposition chamber. You can add multiple doses into the deposition chamber on top of each other to gradually raise the pressure in the chamber or achieve a pressure higher than can be done in one dose.

[0047] Chamber temperature (Max 100°C on the MVD100E™ and 150°C on the

MVD300™).

[0048] Out gas leak up rate: The chamber will pump on the substrates and check the leak up rate from outgassing. It can them proceed to do the deposition at a defined leak up rate.

[0049] Temperature equilibrium: time to bring the substrates up to the chamber temperature.

[0050] Reaction Time: The amount of time the dose is allowed to set in the deposition chamber before it is pumped out.

[0051] Base pressure to which the deposition chamber is reduced when pumped out

[0052] Purges: how many purges, and parameters for pumping and purging the deposition chamber between purges with inert gas such as N2.

[0053] Sequence of precursors and chamber pump purges. Different precursors can be added separated by purges, but multiple precursors can also be added in sequence between purges. As an example, one can measure and send precursor A into the chamber, measure and put precursor B into the chamber, then let them sit for some time, pump out, repeat.

[0054] Plasma pre treatment. The plasma pre treatment can for example be an oxidating or reducing plasma. For example, an oxidating plasma can be an O2 plasma, mixed with argon if needed to get the right flow. An example of a reducing plasma is Fh, for example to remove metal oxides.

[0055] Temperature of the source cylinder. In an example equipment, this temperature may have a maximum setting of 120°C.

[0056] Using these parameters, monomer vapor pressure, evaporation temperature, deposition rate, bonding temperature, and bonding depth can be controlled by the custom programming.

[0057] Additional vapor deposition features

[0058] The additional vapor deposition features below can be included in the vapor deposition method described above, or in different vapor deposition methods. Vapor deposition may be applied in an inert gas atmosphere, for example nitrogen or CO2. The vapor deposition may occur for example at 125-215 °C and to implement the heating step as part of the vapor deposition. The vapor deposition may occur for example at 150-205 °C. The Vapor deposition may be applied at high density, e.g. 40 to 95% of the total gas phase material in the deposition chamber by weight.

[0059]

[0060] The application of the polymer coating material may be integrated into the initial manufacturing of a circuit board. In an example, a metal may be deposited on a fiberglass substrate, followed directly by the application of polymer coating by any of the methods described above. All steps may be carried out in an oxygen-free atmosphere, to avoid any degradation during the process. In an example, the deposition of the metal and deposition of the polymer coating may occur in a single deposition chamber. The metal may be oxygen-free metal, for example <0.0005% oxygen. The metal may be applied for example in an inert gas environment, for example pure nitrogen or C02 environment, or in a high vacuum environment. Fig. 12 shows an exemplary circuit board 170, here a double-sided circuit board with substrate material 172 and metallic surfaces 174 and 176, with polymer coatings 178 and 180 applied to the respective metallic surfaces. [0061] Fig. 13 shows an exemplary process of manufacturing a protected circuit board. In step 190 an oxygen free manufacturing environment is established. In step 192 a metal surface is deposited on a substrate in the oxygen free manufacturing environment. In step 194 a polymer coating is applied to the metal surface. In step 196 the coated surface is placed in contact with another coated surface at an elevated temperature and an electrical bias applied. In step 198, the coated surfaces are separated and allowed to cool. In step 200, the circuit board is placed in sealed packaging. Finally, in step 202, the packaged circuit board is removed from the oxygen free manufacturing environment. [0062] Bias

[0063] The step of applying an electrical bias may include applying an alternating or direct current between two metal surfaces treated according to the application and heating steps described above. Fig. 7 schematically shows two surfaces 120 and 122 having a polymer coating 124 and 126 respectively, with current 128 flowing between them. The alternating current results in a bidirectional electron flow across the contacting surfaces, and the direct current results in monodirectional electron flow. The bias may also be applied by applying an alternating and direct current between a treated surface and an untreated conductor placed in contact with the treated surface.

[0064] Further applications

[0065] A treatment as described above may also be applied to metal surfaces not used in the electronics field, for example as a paint used to coat a metal, for example in automobiles. A conductive film may be applied above the coated metal, and a voltage applied to the conductive film relative to the metal substrate. The conductive film may be a transparent conductor. Fig. 8 schematically shows the surface 130 with polymer coating 132, and conductive film 134, with current 136 applied across the polymer coating 132 using contact 138 placed adjacent to conductive film 134.

[0066] The inventor proposes the following:

[0067] - that the described deposition and heating techniques lead to infusion of the polymer coating material into the metal, and that, where the polymer coating material is a dimethacrylate, they create a metal dimethacrylate, a novel form of conductive metal displaying unique electrical and physical properties. The new metal is thus a copper dimethacrilyate, gold dimethacrilyate, silver dimethacrilyate, tin dimethacrilyate, aluminum dimethacrilyate, or berrylium dimethacrilyate. Fig. 11 schematically shows a polymer coating material infused within a metal surface 160 to form a metal dimethacrylate layer 162.

[0068] - that the dimethylacrylate form of metal conducts by quantum electron tunneling.

[0069] - that the dimethylacrylate molecule acts as a nonconductor but its electron tunneling capability allows for a conductive path from its associated bonded metal to be established through the Unified Field.

[0070] - that when two metal-dimethylacrylate (MDA) surfaces as in a connector are brought into contact and a voltage is applied, electron flow is thus established via the Unified Field. Through the action of quantum electron tunneling, the metal of the first surface passes electrons through both its dimethylacrylate coating and the second surface’s dimethylacrylate coating into the metal of the second MDA surface. These electrons have traveled from the first and second surfaces across the created dual dimethylacrylate barrier through the Unified Field.

[0071] - that tunneling causes stimulation of e=mc² energy transition, resulting in improved conductivity beyond that normally seen by the metal alone, and prevention of degradation of the metal in use.

[0072] - that when electron flow occurs, e=mc² transformation is triggered.

The source electron transcends into the Unified Field, then is re-created at the destination site, thereby effectively drawing creative energy of the Unified Field, transformed via e=mc2 conversion, into the destination site. New electrons are thus forced to create through the current flow across the dimethlyacrylate gap. This causes first order transition of formative energy from the Unified Field into the Planck particle level, then into the subatomic electron level, resulting in improved conductivity and prevention of metal degradation.

[0073] Experimental Results

[0074] A polymer precoat as described above, as applied in liquid form, was tested by The Alberta Centre for Advanced Micro and Nano Products (ACAMP™). [0075] The performance of the polymer coating, referred to in this Experimental

Results section as “Quantum ShieldWall” (Liquid Version) was tested before and after reliability testing, which included: Noise Reduction Test, Noise Floor Test, Contact Resistance Test, Maximum Ampere Limit Test, Breakdown Voltage Test, Thermal Storage Test, Thermal Shock Test, Chemical StabilityTest, Accelerated Aging Test, Vibration Test, Humidity Test, Drop Shock Test, Insertion Test, and g-Force testing. The effect of different test parameters on the Quantum ShieldWall (Liquid Version) was observed, recorded, and reported. There are some tests which were not conducted due to issues which will be discussed.

[0076] The reliability testing of the “Quantum ShieldWall” is important to meet the functional requirements for different conditions as the applicability of the “Quantum ShieldWall” on electronic connections is very broad. These conditions could include sudden exposure to extreme temperatures, mechanical shocks, or long-term vibration.

The reliability testing simulates real-life conditions and the corresponding responses of the system.

[0077] Imagine Research and Technology Inc (IRTI) was familiar with the testing required and outlined the list of different tests. ACAMP has conducted the outlined tests by Imagine Research and suggested alternative test parameters if they are outside of the equipment range. The test parameters were reviewed and approved by IRTI, and the test samples were prepared according to IRTTs suggested method.

[0078] The test samples were prepared by ACAMP according to the client’s directions. The test material, supplied by IRTI, was applied to the contact areas of the test PCB. The test PCB was cleaned with Isopropanol Alcohol (a.k.a. Isopropyl Alcohol) first and then the liquid ‘Quantum ShieldWaH’ was applied to the contact area with the help of a brush provided by the client. The test samples were cured at room temperature for at least 24 hours so that the solvent would evaporate.

[0079] The test PCBs and the PCI boards were supplied by IRTI. The test PCB has contacts and traces on both sides (Side A and Side B). There are 38 contacts per side and 2 different traces (1 m and 2 m). Depending on the test type, contacts or traces were used. The measurement of resistance is done with 4 wire measurement system.

[0080] In order to maintain “double-blind” test procedures, neither materials used for the tests nor their material properties were presented to the personnel performing the tests, nor were analyses asked of those personnel. All analysis was performed by IRTI after completion of the test program in light of IRTTs understanding of the materials as the developer. [0081] A test was carried out according to Mil-Std 883E 1005.8. The test occurred at 125°C for 42 days, using a Yamato™ DKN 402 as the test equipment. 4 specimens were tested, numbered 44 (dry) through 47.

[0082] The system was put inside the chamber on a tray and the required temperature was programmed. The resistance for Side A and Side B contacts were measured before, after, and during the test for future analysis. During the test, ACAMP was not able to get the data completely for sample 46 side A and sample 47 side B. This is probably due to the bad connections.

[0083] Data obtained in the test are shown in Table 1. Each of the four circuit boards has a side A and a side B, each of which were tested. Values are in ohms. “Trend” is an indication of the direction of resistance change during the 42 days of the test. A trend in the direction of lower resistance indicates an improvement in the circuit condition. Readings of 79e5 etc. indicate an open circuit and should be ignored, although in most cases trends can still be observed. In the case of 47B, an open circuit condition was measured before and during the test, but a reading was able to be obtained at the end of the test, which in itself was observed to be low, on par with the other board measurements.

[0084] Table 1

[0085] Imagine Research Analysis of Test Results

[0086] Electronic circuit boards degrade over time in the field, resulting in gradually increasing failure rates, circuit resistance, contact intermittents, corrosion, instability etc. until partial or complete failure occurs. This is a problem throughout the electronics industry, particularly in mission critical environments such as aviation, aerospace, the military, self-driving vehicles, medical electronics, emergency rescue, etc, where electronics simply cannot fail. Lives are at stake.

[0087] The US Department of Defence Mil Spec 883E-1005.8 Accelerated Aging

Test is designed to detect and measure this degradation to failure.

[0088] Quantum ShieldWall PreCoat (QSP) is designed to address this issue, QSP penetrates the copper of the circuit board to several atomic layers deep, improving conductivity and preventing degradation. By serendipitous coincidence, certain aspects of our installation process are similar to procedures used in the 883E 1005.8 Accelerated Aging Test. To that end, we realized we could possibly run the 883E 1005.8 test procedures on a set of circuit boards using our material, and with luck the results would show some degree of the beneficial effects of the material that would occur if installed using our full patent pending procedures. We thought it could be close enough that we might expect to see a positive result and benefits from the test procedure, enough to confirm the technology.

[0089] To explore this possibility, we contracted ACAMP, an independent not- for-profit electronic testing lab supported by Government of Alberta Economic Development and Trade, Alberta Innovates, and Western Economic Diversification Canada.

[0090] ACAMP is familiar with 883E 1005.8 to perform the test procedure following the normal test protocols but using our materials. We instructed the lab to set up a double-blind test procedure and conditions utilizing the 883E test procedures.

Neither the lab nor the test personnel were aware of what we were looking to demonstrate, but were of course aware of the Accelerated Aging Test and its typical outcomes. They assumed that the test would, as is typically the case, measure the degree of degradation of the circuit boards tested. We however expected to see a reversal of the normal degradation to failure that the test normally triggers.

[0091] The test was run on four double-sided boards, and ran for 42 days. The outcome of the test showed what we had anticipated, a reversal of the typical and expected electrical degradation to failure, and on both sides of all four boards. [0092] On the boards where the reading at certain connections went to some very high value, (eg., 99e37) this reading indicates a “no connection” condition. This was due to an inherent fault in the circuit board structure itself, that is, the board manufacturer supplied a batch of boards that was slightly too thin, in fact thinner than the connector specifications call for. This resulted in occasional intermittency in the connectors. Those readings should thus be ignored, while the readings from the connections that did function properly are valid.

[0093] The observation that the resistance of the board connection is decreasing during the test is significant. Lower is better. What is occurring is twofold and anticipated:

[0094] A. The ShieldWall material, applied to boards 45-47 in the chamber, penetrates the copper during the test procedure to several atomic layers deep causing an improvement in conductivity (lower resistance).

[0095] B. The ShieldWall material also evaporates under heat into the chamber from boards 45-47 and causes vapor deposit on the untreated board (board 44) where it again penetrates the copper and produces the same effect of improvement in conductivity. [0096] C. There appears to be no visible coating material after the test, due to the fact that the material penetrates the copper, while any excess evaporates.

[0097] In every case, the trend during the test is that every connection’s resistance is becoming lower, contradicting the typical result in which resistance increases as a board degrades to failure. The percentage improvement varies from 15.1% to 49.4% with an average of 31.7%.

[0098] This indicates that the board is not degrading towards failure, rather it is improving with age.

[0099] Tests of Quantum ShieldWall® on Reference Standard Laboratory Test

Equipment - Study of Effects on Total Harmonic Distortion

[00100] Seven Hewlett Packard Reference Test Oscillators that had seen heavy field use were treated with Quantum ShieldWall to study its effect on distortion levels in the audio signal from the oscillators. The results showed an average reduction in Total Harmonic Distortion of greater than 60%.

[00101] Units Under Test: 7 Hewlett Packard 204C Sinewave Reference Oscillators. SRO’s are used as tone generators in audio. [00102] Test Procedure: All UUTs were calibrated using HP-recommended calibration procedures prior to treatment, then measured for THD (total harmonic distortion) at 500 Hz and again at lOKhz. The Quantum ShieldWall (QS) treatment was performed, then the units were recalibrated and measured again.

[00103] Diagnostic Equipment: A Hewlett Packard 8903A automated Audio Distortion Analyzer was used to make the THD measurements. The unit has a lower THD measurement limit of 0.01%. Table 2 shows the test results.

[00104] Table 2

[00105] For units 1 to 6, average Total Harmonic Distortion reduction at 500 Hz was 68.47%, and average Total Harmonic Distortion reduction at 10 kHz was 51.82%, for an overall average Total Harmonic Distortion reduction for these units of 60.14%. [00106] Fig. 13 shows the more than 68% reduction in Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) observed at 500 Hz. Lower is better. Similar results are observed at 10 kHz. The overall average reduction is greater than 50%.

[00107] Notes [00108] 1. In addition to improved Total Harmonic Distortion figures, the units appeared qualitatively to operate more smoothly, reliably, predictably and were more stable after treatment, and their controls ceased to create unwanted noise during use. [00109] 2. The units were measured with their Normal/Low Distortion switch set to Normal. The low distortion setting provides additional distortion reduction at frequencies below 100 Hz.

[00110] 3. The manufacturer's rated specifications for the units is 0.1% distortion

(-60db at 2.5v rms into 600 ohms). After treatment, all units exceeded manufacturer’s specifications. It is interesting to note that though the units had seen heavy use prior to treatment, they were returned to better-than-new condition after treatment.

[00111] 4. The last unit in the list (808-00873) arrived faulty and was not included in the test results. Its AGC and high frequency adjustments were not functioning properly. Even so, QS was still able to reduce distortion.

[00112] Observations

[00113] An average 60% overall reduction in total harmonic distortion is significant. This level of reduction in audio distortion can be easily discerned by even the untrained ear. Given that test equipment like this can be significantly improved by the process, one might expect that the audio gear that it is designed to test should also greatly benefit.

[00114] In audio systems, lower distortion means the components in a microphone, preamp, effects processor, mixer desk, amplifier, loudspeaker array or other equipment produce a more accurate reproduction of an audio source or recording.

[00115] In radio communications, lower THD means pure signal emission without causing interference to other electronic devices. Moreover, the problem of distorted and not eco-friendly radio emissions appears to be also very important in the context of spectrum sharing and spectrum sensing.

[00116] In power systems, lower THD means reduction in peak currents, heating, emissions, and core loss in motors.

[00117] Field Study of Quantum ShieldWall™ on Musical Equipment Road Gear

[00118] Following on from the results reported earlier in the above lab report, we wanted to take those results and apply them to a real-world situation. We treated a local Edmonton rock band’s road equipment with Quantum ShieldWall (QS) and measured the effects both quantitatively and qualitatively. The equipment treated included microphone, keyboard, mixer board/power amp, effects processor, cabling, and speakers.

[00119] Quantitative analysis measured Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) produced in the mixer board / power amp, which showed an overall 69% reduction in THD. (Lower is better - the greater the reduction in distortion, the better the sound quality.) Because the unit is a key component in the band’s gear, any changes to its operational characteristics should be very apparent to the band members, and would thus potentially provide an interesting qualitative analysis of the material’s effect in real-world use.

[00120] Unit Under Test: Yorkville Micromix P/A, Mixer Board and Power Amplifier, Model MP6

[00121] Diagnostic Equipment: A Hewlett Packard 8903A automated Audio Distortion Analyzer was used to make the THD measurements. The unit has a lower THD measurement limit of 0.01%.

[00122] Test Procedure: The MP6 amplifier was set up in the lab with an 8 W load connected to its power outputs and an audio tone generator on its inputs. The amplifier was allowed to warm up at 10% power for 30 minutes, then tested at six frequencies across the audio spectrum, at output power levels ranging from 20% to full power.

[00123] Differential analysis was performed (output distortion minus source distortion) to isolate potential distortion to that produced by the UUT itself. The QS treatment was performed on all the equipment provided, then the test procedure was repeated on the MP6 unit.

[00124] The equipment was then returned to the band members for their qualitative impressions of overall changes, which might be expected to include improved sound quality and operational characteristics.

[00125] Table 3 shows the total harmonic distortion (THD) test results of the MP6 before and after Quantum ShieldWall treatment.

[00126] Table 3

[00127] The results show an across-the-board improvement in harmonic distortion at every frequency and power level measured. The average distortion reduction across the spectrum at all power levels was about 69%. In addition, an outboard effects channel, which prior to treatment was not working, became fully functional after treatment.

[00128] This is an extraordinary result. This level of reduction in audio distortion is discemable to even the untrained ear. For a professional musician familiar with the sound of his gear, the benefit becomes even more important. Inclusion of treatment of the most of the band’s road gear -microphone, preamp, mixer, effects processor, power amp, cabling and speakers also allowed them to gain qualitative impressions of the overall benefits of treatment.

[00129] The band sent us a letter of their experience with the effect of the QS treatment. While anecdotal, this letter is typical of the improvement noticed in sound quality and operational characteristics, from people intimately familiar with the sound of their road equipment. We have received similar comments from others in the music industry as well as from unbiased listeners unaware that the treatment was performed. [00130] “Hello,

[00131] Just wanted to give you feedback on the Quantum ShieldWall which was done on our sound equipment, (the amp and speakers being quite old). The equipment included:

[00132] 1. Yorkville MP6 Mixer board / PA

[00133] 2. Yorkville Monitor speakers

[00134] 3. Alesis QS8 keyboard

[00135] 4. Alesis MidiVerb II effects processor

[00136] 5. Shure SM 58 mike

[00137] What I really noticed most was the lack of distortion, rattling or buzzing in the speakers when using the keyboard at the extreme high and low range at higher volumes. And less noise, hiss and hum when playing softly. And also, there was less distortion within specific frequency ranges, after raising EQ. So that meant more clarity all round.

[00138] Mark was quite skeptical, so when he tried the keyboard and the mixer/amp, he spent quite a while really fiddling with the knobs trying to make the sound distort. He was really surprised (pleasantly) when it didn't. He had to admit that the quality of output had really improved, and the amp wasn't clipping at all. Before trying the equipment, he really didn't think he would notice a difference but he said that after hearing the sound, he really did! There was a big difference.

[00139] Where we didn't notice as much of a difference, understandably, was when we plugged in Mark's guitar and his old guitar synth (Both of which were NOT treated). I guess that speaks for itself but there was noticeable hiss and hum which I guess I just took as a given before (even though I hated it), which it now turns out was coming from the two untreated pieces even though they were attached to the treated amp and speakers. [00140] Thank you.”

[00141] Field Application Study of Quantum ShieldWall™ on Apple® iPhone 6® [00142] We studied the effect of Quantum ShieldWall treatment on an Apple iPhone 6, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitative analysis measured signal strength of the iPhone’s received cellular signal. In addition, we studied the qualitative experience of the user in real-world situations in a so-called “fringe area” of cell reception.

[00143] The farther one gets from a cell tower, the weaker the tower’s cell signal becomes until the cellular radio signal eventually drops into the noise floor of a cell phone’s receiver circuitry, and the signal gets lost in the electrical background noise. This is the “No Cell Service” level. As one approaches that level of fringe reception, calls become increasingly garbled or drop out entirely.

[00144] The treatment of the iPhone™ resulted in an increase of cell signal strength in deep fringe area measurements by more than 60%. Qualitative improvements were also noted.

[00145] A 2nd iPhone™ 6, identical in every respect including Model Number, Capacity, OS version and Cell Carrier was used as an untreated control, to compare devices. The two were purchased on the same day, and had close serial numbers. [00146] The two iPhones were set into “Apple Field Test Mode” for the tests. AFTM is a technical service feature of the iPhone that allows one to see technical details of the device, including cell signal strength in DBm (decibel milliwatts) as opposed to the standard bars of signal strength. DBm is a far more precise measurement of signal strength. It is represented as a negative number; therefore, the higher the numeric value, the weaker the signal.

[00147] Signal strength from a cell tower will typically vary from a high of -40 db to a low of -130 db, depending on distance from the cell tower.1 The units were operating in LTE mode, thus the levels measured are Reference Signal Received Power (RSRP) measurements.

[00148] A reading of -40 db will typically only be achieved standing right next to the cell tower where signal is strongest. From -40 to about -100 db, if the phone were in bar display one would see the number of bars gradually dropping from 4 bars to one. The range from -120 to -130 db is considered deep fringe area reception, and will often result in calls “breaking up” with garbled audio, short breaks of silence, or completely lost calls. The phone may simply display “No Service”, as the signal has become so weak that it is lost in the background electrical noise from the iPhone’s circuitry and the environment.

[00149] For the purposes of clarity in reading the results, we have converted these measurements to actual signal power level in watts, by the formula:

[00150] Watts = 10^A((dbm-30)/10)

[00151] As the numeric value in DBm increases, signal strength in watts decreases. As the signal strength gets low enough, the cell signal eventually gets lost in the background electrical noise.

[00152] By the time we are below the 1/2 picowatt range (about -123 DBm), the phone can generally no longer get a clear signal. (A picowatt is one trillionth of a watt.) These are tiny, extremely low power signals, and are easily swamped by background noise and any limitations in the phone’s antenna circuitry.

[00153] Random sample measurements were taken of signal strength of the Unit Under Test for two weeks prior to treatment. The unit was then fully disassembled, treated in all field-accessible areas with QS and reassembled. A 24-hour period was given to allow the coatings to stabilize, and then the unit was tested again. [00154] The tests were taken on the iPhone at the user’s home, at a precisely placed position in the home to eliminate the possibility of position variance. Relative to the location of the particular cell tower, the home is in a deep fringe area in a district of Edmonton. Extreme weather (rain etc.) can affect cell signal strength, so measurements on days of rain were avoided. Weather conditions were clear. In addition, building materials affect cell reception. All windows and doors were closed to achieve constant in building field conditions. The control iPhone unit was measured at the same time and location.

[00155] Results of signal strength tests:

[00156] Both phones were sampled 46 times over 2 weeks before the UUT was treated, and 12 times over 4 days after the UUT was treated. The QS-treated unit had an average power level of 1.026 pW before treatment and 1.652 pW after treatment, for a new improvement in signal strength of 61.02%. The nontreated (“control” unit) had an average power level of 0.937 pW before treatment of the UUT, and 0.927 pW after treatment of the UUT. This is a change of -1.08%, and is considered to be within the range of measurement error. The results show a better than 60% improvement in receiver signal strength after treatment. An increase from 1.026 pW to 1.652 pW in deep fringe conditions is significant.

[00157] In addition to improvements in cell tower signal strength, the user’s reports of quality of function of the phone also showed intriguing improvements.

[00158] Because the unit is in a deep fringe area of the particular local cell tower in use, voice calls were usually garbled or lost completely in the user’s home location, and the user would have to wander around the house in an attempt to improve reception. This no longer occurred after treatment. Calls became noticeably clearer and stable anywhere in the home, with no dropped calls. The iPhone continues in regular use in the user’s home, and numerous calls have been placed since treatment, with the same benefits.

[00159] In the user’s area of Edmonton, a nearby four block stretch of a main road has been recognized for years by the user as an exceedingly poor reception area. Calls placed in a vehicle in that stretch will almost invariably be dropped or garbled. After treatment, repeated tests done in a moving vehicle (hands free of course to conform to the driving laws of Alberta) show that not only have dropped calls ceased to occur, but the calls themselves are clear and undistorted.

[00160] The iPhone® 6 has a fingerprint sensor which for the user was essentially unusable. Long detection times, or the sensor being unable to detect the stored fingerprint at all made the device an exercise in frustration. Since treatment the sensor works much more repeatably and reliably, and time-to-detect has improved considerably.

[00161] The touch screen, which has always been excellent, has further improved in its responsiveness as well. Only the lightest touch is required, and it is noticeably faster to respond.

[00162] Interpretation and Comments

[00163] Interestingly, one would not expect this geographic area (well within the Edmonton city limits) where the testing was taking place to be considered a fringe area. But in fact, every cell tower has an edge-of-cell zone where signal strength is reduced, sometimes into fringe levels. There can also be local environmental conditions and interference which affect this.

[00164] Firstly, one might expect that an improvement of signal strength at fringe levels would result in fewer dropped calls as well as a cleaner, less distorted signal. Secondly, it might also result in improved data speeds, since a stronger signal typically means increased data bandwidth.

[00165] Measurements were not taken of potential improvements in data speed during the testing.

[00166] Thirdly, from other tests we have run in the lab, QS is known to reduce the background electrical noise in circuits. In a situation of cell phone fringe area reception, electrical background noise becomes a critical factor. Reduction in background noise would cause a call to be quieter, clearer and more stable. It is likely that a combination of improved signal strength and reduced background noise together produce the benefits seen in the testing.

[00167] Although these tests took a reasonable number of samples over a two- week period and included a control unit for comparison, they should be considered preliminary.

[00168] It may also be possible to optimally design the entire phone for inclusion of Quantum ShieldWall in its manufacture. Indeed, these results were obtained on equipment that has already been manufactured and so only certain areas of the internal structure of the phone were accessible for treatment. In fact, treatment of the entire commercial cellular network transmission chain - carrier network, cell tower equipment, tower broadcast antennas and cell phones themselves could be undertaken.

[00169] In the claims, the word “comprising” is used in its inclusive sense and does not exclude other elements being present. The indefinite articles “a” and “an” before a claim feature do not exclude more than one of the feature being present. Each one of the individual features described here may be used in one or more embodiments and is not, by virtue only of being described here, to be construed as essential to all embodiments as defined by the claims.

Claims

THE EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION IN WHICH AN EXCLUSIVE PROPERTY OR PRIVILEGE IS CLAIMED ARE DEFINED AS FOLLOWS:

1. A method of treating a metallic surface, the method comprising: applying a polymer coating to the metallic surface, the polymer coating comprising one or more block polyethylene glycol-polypropylene glycol copolymers, or comprising a mixture of homopolymers of polyethylene glycol and polypropylene glycol; heating the coated surface at or above 125°C; and before cooling the coated surface, applying an electrical bias across the coating sufficient to produce electron flow.

2. The method of claim 1 in which the polymer coating is selectively applied to portions of the surface using photolithography.

3. The method of claim 1 in which, before applying the polymer coating, an oleophobic coating is selectively applied to portions of the surface where the polymer coating is not desired.

4. The method of claim 3 in which the oleophobic coating is selectively applied using photolithography.

5. The method of claim 6 in which the oleophobic coating is selectively applied by the steps of: applying a photoresist; selectively illuminating the photoresist; applying a solvent to remove portions of the photoresist according to the selective illumination; applying the oleophobic coating; and removing the remaining photoresist.

6. The method of any one of claims 1-5 further comprising, before applying the polymer coating, applying a coating of a metal oxide to the metallic surface.

7. The method of claim 6 in which the metal oxide is less than 20 nm thick.

8. The method of claim 7 in which the metal oxide is sufficiently thin to permit quantum tunneling through the metal oxide.

9. The method of any one of claims 1-8 further comprising applying the polymer coating in combination with an interfacial tension reduction agent.

10. The method of claim 9 in which the interfacial tension reduction agent is a low interfacial tension fluid applied to the surface before applying the polymer coating.

11. The method of claim 10 in which the low interfacial tension fluid is isopropyl alcohol (IP A).

12. The method of any one of claim 9 in which the interfacial tension reduction agent is a surfactant.

13. The method of claim 12 in which the surfactant forms a surface layer on the polymer coating material surface.

14. The method of claim 13 in which the surfactant acts as a Langmuir monomolecular wetting agent on the polymer coating material surface.

15. The method of claim 13 in which the surfactant is an amphiphile.

16. The method of claim 15 in which the surfactant is a three-tailed amphiphile.

17. The method of claim 16 in which the surfactant is ferric stearate.

18. The method of any one of claims 15-17 in which the surfactant forms a bi- molecular layer on the polymer coating surface.

19. The method of claim 12 in which the surfactant lowers the interfacial tension by forming a microemulsion.

20. The method of any one of claims 1-19 in which the polymer coating is applied by mechanical application.

21. The method of claim 20 in which the polymer coating is applied by spin coating.

22. The method of any one of claims 1-8 in which the polymer coating is applied by vapor deposition.

23. The method of claim 22 in which the polymer coating is polymerized in situ on the metallic surface.

24. The method of claim 23 in which the coating is applied by successive vapor deposition of a first monomer precursor and a second monomer precursor to the surface.

25. The method of claim 24 in which each of the monomer precursors is supplied to a deposition chamber from a preheating chamber where the monomer precursor exists as a vapor in an inert gas, and the vapor is deposited on the surface in the deposition chamber.

26. The method of claim 25 in which the monomer precursors each have a vapor pressure in a range of lOOmT to 250mT in the preheating chamber before being supplied to the deposition chamber.

27. The method of claim 25 in which the monomer precursors each have a concentration in the deposition chamber during the deposition process that corresponds to a concentration generated, in a deposition chamber of an MVD® molecular vapor deposition equipment as manufactured by SPTS Technologies Ltd., from a single vapor pulse input from the preheating chamber to the deposition chamber, where the vapor pressure of the monomer precursor is in a range of lOOmT to 250mT in the preheating chamber.

28. The method of any one of claims 22-27 in which the metallic surface is at a temperature in a range of 125-215 °C during the step of applying the polymer coating by vapor deposition.

29. The method of claim 28 in which the metallic surface is at a temperature in a range of 150-205 °C during the step of applying the polymer coating by vapor deposition.

30. The method of any one of claims 22-29 in which the deposited vapor has a density greater than 10 x 10⁶ particles per m³.

31. The method of claim 30 in which the vapor deposition occurs at a temperature of at least 195°C.

32. The method of any one of claims 22-31 further comprising forming the metallic surface before vapor deposition of the polymer coating in the same deposition chamber.

33. The method of claim 32 in which the metallic surface comprises a metal containing less than 0.0005% oxygen by weight.

34. The method of claims 32 or claim 33 in which the metal is applied in an inert gas environment.

35. The method of claim32 or claim 33 in which the metal is applied in a high vacuum environment.

36. The method of any one of claims 32-35 in which the metallic surface is formed on a fiberglass, glass or ceramic substrate.

37. The method of any one of claims 1-36 in which a voltage of -50v dc is applied to the metallic surface during vapor deposition to act as an attractant to the vapor.

38. The method of any one of claims 1-37 in which the electrical bias is applied between the treated surface and an adjacent conductor.

39. The method of claim 38 in which the adjacent conductor is a conductive film applied above the treated surface.

40. The method of claim 39 in which the conductive film is a transparent conductor.

41. The method of any one of claims 1-37 in which the electrical bias is applied between two treated surfaces placed in contact with each other.

42. The method of any one of claims 1-41 carried out entirely in an oxygen-free manufacturing environment.

43. The method of claim 42 further comprising cooling the surface to room temperature in the oxygen free manufacturing environment.

44. The method of claim 42 or claim 43 further comprising sealing the surface in packaging in the oxygen free manufacturing environment.

45. The method of any one of claims 1-44 in which the step of heating the metallic surface at or above 125°C comprises heating the metallic surface at 195°C or higher.

46. The method of claim 45 in which the metallic surface is heated at 195°C or higher for a duration of two hours.

47. The method of claim 45 in which the step of heating the metallic surface at or above 125°C comprises heating the metallic surface at 215°C.

48. The method of any one of claims 1-47 in which the surface is a surface of a nanowire.

49. The method of any one of claims 1-47 in which the surface is a surface of a micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) device.

50. The method of any one of claims 1-47 in which the surface is a surface of a circuit board.

51. The method of claim 50 in which the metallic surface comprises tin, beryllium, silver or gold.

52. The method of claim 51 in which the tin, beryllium, silver or gold comprises a layer bonded to a copper substrate.

53. The method of any one of claims 50-52 in which the circuit board has two sides each comprising respective metallic surfaces.

54. The method of any one of claims 1-53 in which the polymer coating comprises the one or more block polyethylene glycol-polypropylene glycol copolymers, each of the block polyethylene glycol-polypropylene glycol copolymers comprising polyethylene glycol in the range of 2% to 98% per weight, and polypropylene glycol in the range of 2% to 98% per weight.

55. The method of any one of claims 1-54 in which the one or more polymers of the polymer coating are terminated with methacrylate or dimethacrylate groups.

56. The method of any one of claims 1-55 in which the polymer coating comprises a telechelic polypropylene glycol — polyethylene glycol multi-block polymer selected from the group consisting of diacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, dimethacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, diacrylate polypropylene glycol-blockpolyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycols, dimethacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycols, diacrylate polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, dimethacrylate polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, diacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, dimethacrylate polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycols, diacrylate polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycols, dimethacrylate polyethylene glycol-block-polypropylene glycol-block-polyethylene glycol-block- polypropylene glycols, and combinations thereof.

57. The method of claim 56 in which the polymer coating comprises PEG-6-PPG-6- PEG dimethacrylate.

58. The method of any one of claims 1-57 used to coat a surface in audio equipment to reduce harmonic distortion.

59. A coated surface formed by the method of any one of claims 1-58.

60. A metallic surface infused with a dimethacrylate polymer coating.

61. A metallic surface comprising a metal dimethacrylate.