WO2018175879A1

WO2018175879A1 - Methods of treating lactose intolerance and improving gastrointestinal health

Info

Publication number: WO2018175879A1
Application number: PCT/US2018/024015
Authority: WO
Inventors: Andrew Justin RITTER; Dennis Savaiano; Todd Klaenhammer
Original assignee: Ritter Pharmaceuticals Inc
Current assignee: Qualigen Therapeutics Inc
Priority date: 2017-03-24
Filing date: 2018-03-23
Publication date: 2018-09-27
Anticipated expiration: 2019-09-24

Abstract

The present disclosure provides methods of using abdominal pain, abdominal cramping, abdominal bloating and abdominal gas, and combinations thereof, in assessing the efficacy of oligosaccharide mixtures to treat lactose intolerance and improve gastrointestinal health.

Description

METHODS OF TREATING LACTOSE INTOLERANCE AND IMPROVING

GASTROINTESTINAL HEALTH

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS AND INCORPORATIONS BY

REFERENCE

[0001] This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Application Serial No. 62/476,577 filed March 24, 2017, which is hereby expressly incorporated by reference in its entirety. In addition, all publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND

[0002] According to NIH estimates in 2008, 30-50 million Americans are lactose intolerant" (the Food and Drug Administration' s Consumer Health Information on the agency' s website). In the 1960s and 1970s, it was reported that 70% of the adults in the world had lactose intolerance. In 1995, it was reported that 75% of the adults in the world and 25% of the adults in the U.S. were categorized as being lactose intolerant. In 1994, it was reported that 75% of African Americans and Native Americans and 90% of Asian Americans had lactose intolerance. It has also been reported that 30% of adults who are mostly North American descendants of Europeans have adapted to high lactase activity into adulthood. Research concludes that this adaptation is genetically controlled, permanent, and related to a long tradition of milk and milk product consumption in these regions of the world.

[0003] Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest significant amounts of lactose, a major natural sugar found in milk and milk products of all mammals. Lactose intolerance is caused by a shortage of the enzyme lactase, which is produced by the cells that line the small intestine and is essential to lactose digestion. Lactase breaks down lactose, a disaccharide, into two simpler forms of sugar called glucose and galactose, which are then transported across the cell membrane and absorbed into the bloodstream. If lactase is not present, or not present in sufficient levels, excess undigested lactose passes through the small intestines into the large intestine where it is fermented by bacteria in the colon ("colonic microbiota," "gut microbiota," "intestinal microbiota," or "commensal gut microbiota"). The fermentation of lactose in the large intestine produces hydrogen and methane which can lead to bloating, gas, and diarrhea. These symptoms are caused by a very low activity of lactase in the intestines and are found in subjects who are lactose intolerant. Not all subjects deficient in lactase have the symptoms commonly associated with lactose intolerance, but those who do are said to have lactose intolerance.

[0004] This decrease in lactase activity results in a demonstrated maldigestion of the sugar lactose, either with or without symptoms, after ingesting dairy products such as milk, ice cream, cheese and pizza. Lactose maldigestion, with or without the symptoms commonly associated with lactose intolerance, is often defined more specifically as an "increase in blood glucose concentration of < 1.12 mmol/L or breath hydrogen of >20 ppm after ingestion of 1 g/kg body weight or 50 g lactose" (de Vrese et al., 2001).

[0005] If a subject suspects that he or she has lactose intolerance, it is potentially harmful for him or her to restrict his or her diet because restriction can result in a nutrition shortage or a failure to detect a more serious disease. Milk and other dairy products are major sources for nutrition in the basic American diet. The primary nutrients in milk are protein, calcium, riboflavin, vitamin A, and vitamin D. Calcium is an important part of the recommended daily allowance of vitamins and minerals and any deficiency therein can lead to increased risk of osteoporosis and hypertension (McCarron and Heaney 2004) and possibly cancer (Barger-Lux and Heaney 1994; Consensus Conference: Optimal Calcium Intakes, NIH 1994).

[0006] Young children who have lactose intolerance are very rare. The amount of the enzyme lactase a body produces generally reaches a maximum immediately after birth and then decreases in the majority of people during the ages of about 3-15.

[0007] Generally, humans develop lactose intolerance from a primary or secondary cause. The primary cause is an onset of loss of lactase that is believed to be a permanent condition. This onset can occur at a variable period after the weaning period. The primary cause is also genetically determined. The secondary cause is generally a temporary condition that occurs as a result of another disease or event that damages the lining of the small intestine where lactase is active. This temporary condition can be caused by acute diarrhea, disease, parasitic infection, Cohn's disease, celiac disease, gastrointestinal surgery, or the intake of certain medications.

[0008] In addition to the primary and secondary causes, certain human ethnic and racial populations have more of a predisposition for lactose intolerance. In these populations, social and cultural habits and attitudes influence lactose intolerance. Lactose activity can also decrease with age in certain ethnic and racial populations, including those populations which have origins in Europe, the African plains, and the Siberian Steppes. Humans who are most likely to have or develop lactose intolerance include those of Asian, Middle Eastern, North American, African, and Latin American decent.

[0009] Currently, there is no universally accepted therapy for the treatment of lactose intolerance. As such, most lactose intolerant individuals avoid the ingestion of milk and dairy products, while others substitute non-lactose containing products in their diet. The avoidance of lactose makes the occurrence of symptoms more likely when dairy foods are consumed.

[0010] Nutritional supplements currently sold often offer no proven benefit or in some instances, must be ingested prior to eating dairy, where the outcome is dependent on the dose of the supplement and relative to the amount of lactose consumed. In some instances, use of a nutritional supplement to manage the symptoms associated with lactose intolerance may require large dosages, such as five or more pills per day.

[0011] There is need in the medical community for a tolerable and convenient treatment that allows for all levels of milk and dairy product consumption in people suffering from mild to severe lactose intolerance. A treatment that provides a simplified dosing regimen as well as the potential for extended relief from symptoms following a limited therapy regimen (e.g., <30 days) would result in greater compliance and address an unmet medical need.

[0012] "Prebiotics" are non-digestible food ingredients that stimulate the growth or activity of bacteria in the digestive system that are beneficial to the health of the body (Gibson and Roberfroid 1995). Typically, prebiotics are carbohydrates such as oligosaccharides, but the definition does not preclude non-carbohydrates.

[0013] Prebiotics have been further defined as fulfilling three criteria (Gibson et al.

2004):

[0014] 1) Resistance to gastric acidity, hydrolysis by mammalian enzymes and gastrointestinal absorption;

[0015] 2) Fermentation by intestinal microflora; and

[0016] 3) Selective stimulation of the growth and/or selective activity of intestinal bacteria associated with health and well-being.

[0017] Substantial data exist to support the strategy that colonic bacteria adapt readily to undigested carbohydrates, resulting in dramatically improved lactose tolerance. A purified GOS preparation, can promote the selective growth of beneficial colonic bacteria, including multiple species and strains of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. Bifidobacteria carry out non hydrogen-producing lactose fermentation reactions in addition to inhibiting hydrogen producing bacteria, such as Escherichia coli (E. coli). It is this excessive hydrogen production that defines lactose malabsorption and ultimately is responsible for the symptoms associated with lactose intolerance (Ballongue 1993; Gibson 1994, 1995). A recent study indicates that higher purity GOS formulations have a greater potential to selectively promote the growth of beneficial lactobacilli and bifidobacteria (Klaenhammer 2010).

SUMMARY

[0018] A method is described for assessing efficacy of an oligosaccharide mixture, which is also described, in improving gastrointestinal health. The method comprises administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition comprising one or more indigestible oligosaccharides and less than about 20%, 10%, 5%, 4%, 3% or less, digestible saccharides by weight and measuring a change in at least one, two, three or four abdominal symptoms. The abdominal symptom may be one or more of abdominal pain, abdominal cramping, abdominal bloating, abdominal gas. The change in the at least one, two, three or four abdominal symptoms is measured at least 20-60, and preferably 31, days after a first administration of the composition. The change in the abdominal symptoms may be compared to a change in the abdominal symptoms for a subject receiving a placebo, or following a lactose challenge test (SZA), and may be measured 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 hours after the lactose challenge test (SZA).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0019] Embodiments of the methods, systems, and compositions of the present disclosure are provided herein. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the methods, systems, and compositions as described herein will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the underlying said embodiments are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

[0020] Figure 1 illustrates the chemical structure of lactulose.

[0021] Figure 2 illustrates the chemical structure of raffinose.

[0022] Figure 3 illustrates the chemical structure of stachyose.

[0023] Figure 4 illustrates the chemical structure of inulin.

[0024] Figure 5 illustrates a treatment regimen with a 70% GOS composition.

[0025] Figure 6 illustrates another treatment regimen with a 70% GOS composition.

[0026] Figure 7 illustrates a treatment regimen with a 90% GOS composition.

[0027] Figure 8 illustrates another treatment regimen with a 93% GOS composition. [0028] Figure 9 illustrates a treatment regimen with a 95% GOS composition.

[0029] Figure 10 illustrates a non-limiting example of different GOS with a DP of 2, 3, and 4.

[0030] Figure 11 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a sample containing high purity GOS.

[0031] Figure 12 illustrates Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM growth on 2% GOSl (95%) or glucose.

[0032] Figures 13A and 13B illustrate HPLC chromatograms of GOS compositions of the present disclosure before (13A) and after (13B) a purification step.

[0033] Figure 14 illustrates comparative growth of L. acidophilus, Bifidobacterium lactis, Bifidobacterium, breve, and Bifidobacterium longum on GOSl (95%).

[0034] Figure 15 illustrates comparative growth of B. longum, Bifidobacterium pseudolongum, Bifidobacterium animalis, and Bifidobacterium adolescentis on glucose and GOS l (95%).

[0035] Figure 16 illustrates comparative growth of B. pseudolongum NCK20383 on glucose, lactose, GOSl (95%), and GOS2 (90%).

[0036] Figure 17 illustrates comparative growth of four bifidobacterial strains on glucose, GOSl (95%), GOS2 (90%), and lactose.

[0037] Figure 18 illustrates growth of 3 Escherichia coli strains in media with no added carbohydrate (control), or 2% added glucose, GOS l (95% GOS), or GOS2 (90% GOS).

[0038] Figure 19 illustrates a schematic of a high percentage GOS composition manufacturing process.

[0039] Figure 20 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a sample containing GOS 95.

[0040] Figure 21 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a blank sample (PVDF filtered 0.015N H2 S04).

[0041] Figure 22 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a sample containing Lactose.

[0042] Figure 23 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a sample containing a-D- Glucose.

[0043] Figure 24 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a sample containing D-(+)- Galactose.

[0044] Figure 25 illustrates an overview of a Phase Π proof-of-concept study.

[0045] Figure 26 illustrates a set of interviewer instructions for a pre-screening interview.

[0046] Figure 27 illustrate a study introduction script for a pre-screening interview. [0047] Figure 28 illustrates a lactose intolerance symptom script/guidelines for a pre- screening interview.

[0048] Figure 29 illustrates a lactose intolerance life-style script/guidelines for a pre- screening interview.

[0049] Figure 30 illustrates a Lactose Load Symptom Questionnaire for a pre- screening interview.

[0050] Figure 31 illustrates a Daily Symptom Diary for use during Placebo Run-in and Treatment studies.

[0051] Figure 32 illustrates a Daily Symptom and Milk Product Diary for use during the Follow-up studies.

[0052] Figure 33 illustrates a change in the bacterial population in response to treatment with GOS-95.

[0053] Figure 34 illustrates an overview of method for analyzing the operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of the fecal microbiome.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

/. Overview

[0054] Disclosed herein are methods of treating lactose intolerance in a subject experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subject, wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises

Galactooligosaccharide (GOS). In one embodiment, at least about 80% of the total weight of the composition is GOS. In one embodiment, at least about 95% of the total weight of the composition is GOS. In one embodiment, the composition comprises about 0.1 g to 20 g GOS.

In one embodiment, the composition comprises about 1.5 g to 15 g GOS. In one embodiment, the composition is a spray-dried powder, effervescent, dissolved tablet, a powder dissolved in water, a powder spread on food, a syrup, or a liquid. In one embodiment, the spray-dried powder, effervescent, dissolved tablet, powder dissolved in water, powder spread on food, syrup, or liquid is provided in a capsule or softgel. In one embodiment, the syrup or liquid is provided in a bottle. In one embodiment, the syrup or liquid is diluted with water prior to consumption. In one embodiment, the composition is provided in a dosing unit. In one embodiment, the dosing unit is a capsule, tablet, softgel, effervescent tablet, orodispersible tablet, oral thin or dissolving film, oral spray, bar, gel, powder, or lozenge. In one embodiment, the dosing unit is provided in the form of a candy matrix such as a gummy, jelly candy, chewing gum, hard candy, tablet candy, taffy candy, chewy candy, or lollipop. In one embodiment, the dosing unit further comprises an enteric coating. In one embodiment, the composition further comprises a probiotic. In one embodiment, the probiotic comprises Lactobacillus or bifidobacteria. In one embodiment, the composition does not contain a probiotic. In one embodiment, the composition is administered each day for a predetermined number of days. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 1 to 3 days. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 1 to 5 days or 3 to 5 days. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 1 day to 1 week or 1 day to one month. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is one month to three months or one month to six months. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is one month to one year. In one embodiment, the method comprises administering a lower dosage of GOS on the first day of administration than the last day of administration. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 0.1 grams to 20 grams of GOS on the first day and a greater amount of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 1 gram of GOS on the first day and 20 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 1 gram of GOS on the first day and 10 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 1.5 grams of GOS on the first day and 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 2 grams of GOS on the first day and 20 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the method comprises administering the same dosage of GOS on the first day of administration as the last day of administration. In one embodiment, the method comprises administering the composition once a day. In one embodiment, the method comprises administering the composition twice a day. In one embodiment, the composition is provided without a meal. In one embodiment, the composition is provided with a meal. In one embodiment, the subject is a human subject. In one embodiment, the subject is a pediatric subject. In one embodiment, the subject is an adult. In one embodiment, the subject is an elderly person. In one embodiment, the subject is a post-menopausal woman. In one embodiment, the one or more symptoms comprise flatulence, heartburn, upset stomach, nausea, bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, or vomiting. In one embodiment, the subject has a nutritional deficiency. In one embodiment, the nutritional deficiency is a calcium deficiency.

[0055] Also disclosed here are methods of preventing lactose intolerance in a subject experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subject, wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises GOS. In one embodiment, at least about 80% of the total weight of the composition is GOS. In one embodiment, at least about 95% of the total weight of the composition is GOS. In one embodiment, the composition comprises about 0.1 g to 20 g GOS. In one embodiment, the composition comprises about 1.5 g to 15 g GOS. In one embodiment, the composition is a syrup or liquid. In one embodiment, the syrup or liquid is provided in a capsule or softgel. In one embodiment, the syrup or liquid is provided in a bottle. In one embodiment, the syrup or liquid is diluted with water prior to consumption. In one embodiment, the composition is provided in a dosing unit. In one embodiment, the dosing unit is a capsule, tablet, softgel, effervescent tablet, oral thin or dissolving film, orodispersible tablet, oral spray, bar, gel, powder, or lozenge. In one embodiment, the dosing unit is provided in a candy matrix form such as a gummy, jelly candy, chewing gum, hard candy, tablet candy, taffy candy, chewy candy, or lollipop. In one embodiment, the dosing unit further comprises an enteric coating. In one embodiment, the composition further comprises a probiotic. In one embodiment, the probiotic comprises Lactobacillus or bifidobacteria. In one embodiment, the composition does not contain a probiotic. In one embodiment, the composition is administered each day for a predetermined number of days. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 10 to 40 days. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 35 days. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 30 days. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 14 days. In one embodiment, the method comprises administering a lower dosage of GOS on the first day of administration than the last day of administration. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 0.1 grams to 20 grams of GOS on the first day and a greater amount of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 1 gram of GOS on the first day and 20 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 1 gram of GOS on the first day and 10 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 1.5 grams of GOS on the first day and 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 2 grams of GOS on the first day and at least 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 3 grams of GOS on the first day and at least 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 4 grams of GOS on the first day and at least 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 5 grams of GOS on the first day and at least 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 7.5 grams of GOS on the first day and at least 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 10 grams of GOS on the first day and at least 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 12.5 grams of GOS on the first day and at least 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered 15 grams of GOS on the first day and more than 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, the method comprises administering the same dosage of GOS on the first day of administration as the last day of administration. In one embodiment, the method comprises administering the composition once a day. In one embodiment, the method comprises administering the composition twice a day. In one embodiment, the composition is provided without a meal. In one embodiment, the composition is provided with a meal. In one embodiment, the subject is a human subject. In one embodiment, the subject is a pediatric subject. In one embodiment, the subject is an adult. In one embodiment, the subject is an elderly person. In one embodiment, the subject is a post- menopausal woman. In one embodiment, the one or more symptoms comprise flatulence, heartburn, upset stomach, nausea, bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, or vomiting. In one embodiment, the subject has a nutritional deficiency. In one embodiment, the nutritional deficiency is a calcium deficiency.

[0056] Also disclosed herein are methods of treating lactose intolerance in a subject experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance comprising: administering a hydrogen breath test (HBT) to the subject; diagnosing the subject as having or not having lactose intolerance based upon a HBT result; and, administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subject diagnosed as having lactose intolerance based upon the HBT result, wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises GOS. In one embodiment, the HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than about 12 ppm. In one embodiment, the HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than about 15 ppm. In one embodiment, the HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than about 20 ppm. Also disclosed here are methods of treating lactose intolerance in a subject experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance comprising: administering a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire; diagnosing the subject as having or not having lactose intolerance based upon a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result; and, administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subject diagnosed with lactose intolerance based upon the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result, wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises GOS. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result is a single symptom rating of moderately severe to severe. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result is two or more symptom ratings of moderate or higher. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result is a single symptom rating of moderate or higher at two different timepoints. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire is administered after a lactose or milk challenge. Also disclosed herein are methods of treating lactose intolerance in a subject experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance comprising: administering a hydrogen breath test (HBT) to the subject; administering a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire to the subject; diagnosing the subject as having or not having lactose intolerance based upon a HBT result and a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result; and administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subject diagnosed with lactose intolerance based upon the HBT result and the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result, wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises GOS. In one embodiment, the HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than 12 ppm. In one embodiment, the HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than 15 ppm. In one embodiment, the HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than 20 ppm. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result is a single symptom rating of moderately severe to severe. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result is two or more symptom ratings of moderate or higher. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result is a single symptom rating of moderate or higher at two different timepoints. In some embodiments, at least about 80% of the total weight of the composition is GOS. In some embodiments, at least about 95% of the total weight of the composition is GOS. In some embodiments, the composition comprises about 0.1 g to 20 g GOS. In some embodiments, the composition comprises about 1.5 g to 15 g GOS. In some embodiments, the composition is a syrup or liquid. In some embodiments, the syrup or liquid is provided in a capsule or softgel. In some embodiments, the syrup or liquid is provided in a bottle. In some embodiments, the syrup or liquid is diluted with water prior to consumption. In some embodiments, the composition is provided in a dosing unit. In some embodiments, the dosing unit is a capsule, tablet, softgel, effervescent tablet, oral thin or dissolving film, powder, orodispersible tablet, oral spray, bar, gel, or lozenge. In some embodiments, the dosing unit further comprises an enteric coating. In some embodiments, the composition further comprises a probiotic. In some embodiments, the probiotic comprises Lactobacillus or bifidobacteria. In some embodiments, the composition does not contain a probiotic. In some embodiments, the composition is administered each day for a predetermined number of days. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 1, 2, or 3 days. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 days. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 1 day to 1 week or 1 day to one month. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is one month to three months or one month to six months. In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is one month to one year. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering a lower dosage of GOS on the first day of administration than the last day of administration. In some embodiments, the subject is administered 1.5 grams of GOS on the first day and 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering the same dosage of GOS on the first day of administration as the last day of administration. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering the composition once a day. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering the composition twice a day. In some embodiments, the composition is provided without a meal. In some embodiments, the composition is provided with a meal. In some embodiments, the subject is a human subject. In some embodiments, the subject is a pediatric subject. In some embodiments, the subject is an adult. In some embodiments, the subject is an elderly person. In some embodiments, the subject is a post-menopausal woman. In some embodiments, the one or more symptoms comprise flatulence, heartburn, upset stomach, nausea, bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, or vomiting. In some embodiments, the subject has a nutritional deficiency. In some embodiments, the nutritional deficiency is a calcium deficiency.

[0057] Also disclosed herein are methods of treating a subject with a calcium deficiency, wherein the subject is experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance, comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subject, wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises GOS. Also disclosed herein are methods of treating a subject with a calcium deficiency wherein the subject is experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance comprising: administering a hydrogen breath test (HBT) to the subject; diagnosing the subject as having or not having lactose intolerance based upon a HBT result; and, administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subject diagnosed as having lactose intolerance based upon the HBT result, wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises GOS. In one embodiments, the method of treatment further comprising administering a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire to the subject and diagnosing the subject as having or not having lactose intolerance based upon the HBT result and a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result. Also disclosed herein are methods of treating a subject with a calcium deficiency wherein the subject is experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance comprising: administering a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire; diagnosing the subject as having or not having lactose intolerance based upon a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result; and, administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subject diagnosed with lactose intolerance based upon the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire results, wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises GOS. In one embodiment, the HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than 12 ppm. In one embodiment, the HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than 15 ppm. In one embodiment, the HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than 20 ppm. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result is a single symptom rating of moderately severe to severe. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result is two or more symptom ratings of moderate or higher. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result is a single symptom rating of moderate or higher at two different timepoints. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire is administered after a lactose or milk challenge. In some embodiments, the subject has bone loss, osteoporosis, hypertension, weak bone density and/or cardiac arrhythmias. In some embodiments, at least about 80% of the total weight of the composition is GOS. In some embodiments, at least about 95% of the total weight of the composition is GOS. In some embodiments, the composition comprises about 0.1 g to 20 g GOS. In some embodiments, the composition comprises about 1.5 g to 15 g GOS. In some embodiments, the composition is a syrup or liquid. In some embodiments, the syrup or liquid is provided in a capsule or softgel. In some embodiments, the syrup or liquid is provided in a bottle. In some embodiments, the syrup or liquid is diluted with water prior to consumption. In some embodiments, the composition is provided in a dosing unit. In some embodiments, the dosing unit is a capsule, tablet, softgel, effervescent tablet, oral thin or dissolving film, orodispersible tablet, oral spray, or lozenge. In some embodiments, the dosing unit further comprises an enteric coating. In some embodiments, the composition further comprises a probiotic. In some embodiments, the probiotic comprises Lactobacillus or bifidobacteria. In some embodiments, the composition does not contain a probiotic. In some embodiments, the composition is administered each day for a predetermined number of days. In some embodiments, the predetermined number of days is 10 to 40 days. In some embodiments, the predetermined number of days is 35 days. In some embodiments, the predetermined number of days is 30 days. In some embodiments, the predetermined number of days is 14 days. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering a lower dosage of GOS on the first day of administration than the last day of administration. In some embodiments, the subject is administered 1.5 grams of GOS on the first day and 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering the same dosage of GOS on the first day of administration as the last day of administration. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering the composition once a day. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering the composition twice a day. In some embodiments, the composition is provided without a meal. In some embodiments, the composition is provided with a meal. In some embodiments, the subject is a human subject. In some embodiments, the subject is a pediatric subject. In some embodiments, the subject is an adult. In some embodiments, the subject is an elderly person. In some embodiments, the subject is a post-menopausal woman. In some embodiments, the one or more symptoms comprise flatulence, heartburn, upset stomach, nausea, bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, or vomiting. [0058] Also disclosed herein are pharmaceutically acceptable oral dosage forms of GOS comprising one or more dosing units, each of the dosing units comprising 0.1 to 2 g of a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition is a liquid encapsulated in a gelatin capsule. Also disclosed herein are pharmaceutically acceptable oral dosage forms of GOS comprising one or more dosing units, each of the dosing units comprising 0.1 to 2 g of a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition is a viscous syrup or liquid encapsulated in a gelatin capsule. In some embodiments, the gelatin capsule is size 000, 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises at least about 80% GOS by weight. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises at least about 95% GOS by weight. In some embodiments, the gelatin capsule further comprises an enteric coating. In some embodiments the, GOS composition further comprises a probiotic. In some embodiments, the probiotic comprises Lactobacillus or bifidobacteria. In some embodiments, the GOS composition does not contain a probiotic.

[0059] Also disclosed herein are methods, compositions, and kits useful for the reduction of symptoms of lactose intolerance in a subject in need thereof, and for improving overall gastrointestinal (GI) health. Symptoms of lactose intolerance include gas, heartburn, stomach upset, bloating, flatulence, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, nausea, or vomiting. Minor digestive problems related to the GI also include occasional bloating, diarrhea, constipation, gas, heartburn, or stomach upset. The methods and compositions described herein are useful for reducing or eliminating one or more of these symptoms, for example through colonic adaptation. Fructose and sorbitol malabsorption are also common when lactose malabsorption is present. The methods and compositions described herein can also be useful for reducing or eliminating malabsorption of saccharides or carbohydrates such as lactose, fructose, or sorbitol.

[0060] Improvements in gastrointestinal health may involve preventing, treating, or reducing or eliminating one or more symptoms of a gastrointestinal disorder, the methods comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition comprising: a. an effective amount of a galactooligosaccharides (GOS) composition to prevent, treat, or reduce or eliminate the one or more symptoms of the gastrointestinal disorder; and b. one or more excipients, wherein the gastrointestinal disorder is constipation, diarrhea, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), small intestine bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), hemorrhoids, indigestion or non-ulcer dyspepsia, anal fissures, perianal abscesses, anal fistula, diverticulosis or diverticulitis, colitis, infectious colitis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, ischemic colitis, radiation colitis, pseudomembranous colitis, C. difficile colitis, ameboma, anismus, peptic ulcers, colic, biliary colic, gastroenteritis, acrodermatitis enteropathica, ileus, intussusception, polyps, obesity, Hirschsprung's disease, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome. In some embodiments, the subject experiences a reduction in at least one of the one or more symptoms of the gastrointestinal disorder following treatment. In some embodiments, the reduction in the at least one of the one or more symptoms of the gastrointestinal disorder following treatment is about a 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 100% decrease in a subject reported severity of the at least one of the one or more symptoms of the gastrointestinal disorder. In some embodiments, the reduction in at least one of the one or more symptoms of the gastrointestinal disorder persists for at least about a day, a week, a month, 3 months, 6 months, 9 months, or a year after treatment. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises from about 50% to about 100% GOS by dry weight. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises about 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% of the GOS by dry weight. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, and pentasaccharides. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises at least 80% disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, and pentasaccharides by dry weight. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises from about 0.1 % to about 5% disaccharides by dry weight, from about 30% to about 75% trisaccharides by dry weight, from about 15% to about 45% tetrasaccharides by dry weight, and from about 1 % to about 20% pentasaccharides by dry weight. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises from about 1 % to about 2% disaccharides by dry weight, from about 50% to about 60% trisaccharides by dry weight, about 25% to about 35% tetrasaccharides by dry weight, and about 5% to about 15% pentasaccharides by dry weight. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises less than 10% digestible saccharides by dry weight. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises less than 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1 % digestible saccharides by dry weight. In some embodiments, the one or more excipients comprise one or more antiadherents, binders, coatings, disintegrants, fillers, flavours, colours, lubricants, glidants, sorbents, preservatives, sweeteners, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more excipients comprise acacia, alginate, alginic acid, aluminum acetate, benzyl alcohol, butyl paraben, butylated hydroxy toluene, calcium carbonate, calcium disodium edta, calcium hydrogen phosphate dihydrate, dibasic calcium phosphate, tribasic calcium phosphate, calcium stearate, candelilla wax, carboxymethylcellulose calcium, carnuba wax, castor oil hydrogenated, cellulose, cetylpyridine chloride, citric acid, colloidal silicone dioxide, copolyvidone, croscarmellose sodium, crospovidone, cysteine HC1, dimethicone, disodium hydrogen phosphate, erythrosine sodium, ethyl cellulose, gelatin, glycerin, glyceryl behenate, glyceryl monooleate, glyceryl monostearate, glycine, hpmc pthalate, hydroxy propyl cellulose, hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose, hypromellose, iron oxide red or ferric oxide, iron oxide yellow, iron oxide or ferric oxide, magnesium carbonate, magnesium oxide, magnesium stearate, methionine, methacrylic acid copolymer, methyl cellulose, methyl paraben, microcrystalline cellulose, silicified microcrystalline cellulose, mineral oil, polyethylene glycol (PEG), phosphoric acid, plain calcium phosphate, anhydrous calcium phosphate, polaxamer 407, polaxamer 188, plain polaxamer, polyethylene oxide, polyoxyl40 stearate, polysorbate 80, potassium bicarbonate, potassium sorbatepovidone, polyvinypyrrolidone (PVP), propylene glycol, propylene paraben, propyl paraben, retinyl palmitate, saccharin sodium, selenium, silica, silica gel, fumed silica, silicon dioxide, sodium alginate, sodium benzoate, sodium carbonate, sodium carboxy methyl cellulose, sodium chloride, sodium citrate dihydrate, sodium crossmellose, sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium metabisulfite, sodium propionate, sodium stearyl fumarate, sorbic acid, sorbitol, sorbiton monooleate, starch, pregelatinized starch, stearic acid, succinic acid, sucrose, talc, titanium dioxide, triacetin, triethyl citrate, vegetable stearin, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin C, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more excipients comprise silicified microcrystalline cellulose. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises from about 10% to about 75% of the one or more excipients by dry weight. In some embodiments, the one or more excipients is silicified microcrystalline cellulose and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises from about 10% to about 75% of the silicified microcrystalline cellulose by dry weight. In some embodiments, the one or more excipients is silicified microcrystalline cellulose and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises from about 45% to about 55% of the silicified microcrystalline cellulose by dry weight. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is in a dosage form that is a liquid, gel, cream, powder, tablet, capsule, gel capsule, effervescent tablet, or lozenge. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is in a dosage form that is a powder and wherein the powder is packaged in a sachet. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the GOS composition is from about 1 g to about 25 g. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is administered one, two, or three times a day. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is administered twice a day. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is administered each day for a predetermined number of days. In some embodiments, the predetermined number of days is from 1 day to about 60 days. In some embodiments, the administering is based on a body mass measurement of the subject. In some embodiments, the body mass measurement is used to place the subject in a treatment category. In some embodiments, the body mass measurement is used to place the subject in a treatment category, wherein the treatment category comprises subjects weighing less than or equal to about 150 Lbs, subjects weighing from about 151 to 200 Lbs, or subjects weighing greater than about 200 Lbs. In some embodiments, an amount of the pharmaceutical composition administered to the subject is based upon the body mass measurement of the subject. In some embodiments, the amount of the pharmaceutical composition is from about 1 g to about 50 g per day for subjects in a first treatment category. In some embodiments, the amount of the pharmaceutical composition is about 1 g to about 20 g per day higher for subjects in a second treatment category than for subjects in the first treatment category and wherein the second treatment category comprises heavier subjects than the first treatment category. In some embodiments, the amount of the pharmaceutical composition is about 1 g to about 20 g per day higher for subjects in a third treatment category than for subjects in the second treatment category and wherein the third treatment category comprises heavier subjects than the second treatment category. In some embodiments, a number of dosing units the subject is administered per day is based upon the body mass measurement of the subject. In some embodiments, the number of dosing units is from about 1 to about 30 per day for subjects in a first treatment.

[0061] Also disclosed herein are methods of preventing, treating, or reducing or eliminating one or more symptoms of a gastrointestinal disorder in a subject in need thereof, the methods comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition comprising: a. an effective amount of a prebiotic composition to prevent, treat, or reduce or eliminate the one or more symptoms of the gastrointestinal disorder; and b. one or more excipients, wherein the gastrointestinal disorder is not lactose intolerance. In some embodiments, the gastrointestinal disorder is constipation, diarrhea, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), small intestine bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), hemorrhoids, indigestion or non-ulcer dyspepsia, anal fissures, perianal abscesses, anal fistula, diverticulosis or diverticulitis, colitis, infectious colitis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, ischemic colitis, radiation colitis, pseudomembranous colitis, C. difficile colitis, ameboma, anismus, peptic ulcers, colic, biliary colic, gastroenteritis, acrodermatitis enteropathica, ileus, intussusception, polyps, obesity, Hirschsprung's disease, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome. In some embodiments, the subject experiences a reduction in at least one of the one or more symptoms of the gastrointestinal disorder following treatment. In some embodiments, the reduction in at least one of the one or more symptoms of the gastrointestinal disorder is about a 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 100% decrease in a subject reported severity of the at least one of the one or more symptoms of the gastrointestinal disorder. In some embodiments, the reduction in at least one of the one or more symptoms of the gastrointestinal disorder persists for at least about a day, a week, a month, 3 months, 6 months, 9 months, or a year after treatment. In some embodiments, the gastrointestinal disorder is SIBO, IBS, IBD, metabolic syndrome, or diabetes. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition comprises one or more non-digestible oligosaccharides. In some embodiments, the one or more non-digestible oligosaccharides comprise galactooligosaccharides (GOS), lactulose, raffinose, stachyose, inulin, fructooligosaccharides (FOS), or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition comprises from about 50% to about 100% of the one or more non-digestible oligosaccharides by dry weight. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition comprises about 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% of the one or more non-digestible oligosaccharides by dry weight. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition is a galactooligosaccharides (GOS) composition. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises monosaccharides (GOS1), disaccharides (GOS2), trisaccharides (GOS3), tetrasaccharides (GOS4), pentasaccharides (GOS5), and/or hexasaccharides (GOS6), and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises at least 80% disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, and pentasaccharides by dry weight. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises from about 0.1% to about 5% disaccharides by dry weight, from about 30% to about 75% trisaccharides by dry weight, from about 15% to about 45% tetrasaccharides by dry weight, and from about 1% to about 20% pentasaccharides by dry weight. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises from about 1% to about 2% disaccharides by dry weight, from about 50% to about 60% trisaccharides by dry weight, about 25% to about 35% tetrasaccharides by dry weight, and about 5% to about 15% pentasaccharides by dry weight. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises from about 50% to about 100% GOS by dry weight. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises about 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% GOS by dry weight. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises less than 10% digestible saccharides by dry weight. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises less than 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% digestible saccharides by dry weight. In some embodiments, the one or more excipients comprise one or more antiadherents, binders, coatings, disintegrants, fillers, flavours, colours, lubricants, glidants, sorbents, preservatives, sweeteners, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more excipients comprise acacia, alginate, alginic acid, aluminum acetate, benzyl alcohol, butyl paraben, butylated hydroxy toluene, calcium carbonate, calcium disodium edta, calcium hydrogen phosphate dihydrate, dibasic calcium phosphate, tribasic calcium phosphate, calcium stearate, candelilla wax, carboxymethylcellulose calcium, carnuba wax, castor oil hydrogenated, cellulose, cetylpyridine chloride, citric acid, colloidal silicone dioxide, copolyvidone, croscarmellose sodium, crospovidone, cysteine HC1, dimethicone, disodium hydrogen phosphate, erythrosine sodium, ethyl cellulose, gelatin, glycerin, glyceryl behenate, glyceryl monooleate, glyceryl monostearate, glycine, hpmc pthalate, hydroxy propyl cellulose, hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose, hypromellose, iron oxide red or ferric oxide, iron oxide yellow, iron oxide or ferric oxide, magnesium carbonate, magnesium oxide, magnesium stearate, methionine, methacrylic acid copolymer, methyl cellulose, methyl paraben, microcrystalline cellulose, silicified microcrystalline cellulose, mineral oil, polyethylene glycol (PEG), phosphoric acid, plain calcium phosphate, anhydrous calcium phosphate, polaxamer 407, polaxamer 188, plain polaxamer, polyethylene oxide, polyoxyl40 stearate, polysorbate 80, potassium bicarbonate, potassium sorbatepovidone, polyvinypyrrolidone (PVP), propylene glycol, propylene paraben, propyl paraben, retinyl palmitate, saccharin sodium, selenium, silica, silica gel, fumed silica, silicon dioxide, sodium alginate, sodium benzoate, sodium carbonate, sodium carboxy methyl cellulose, sodium chloride, sodium citrate dihydrate, sodium crossmellose, sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium metabisulfite, sodium propionate, sodium stearyl fumarate, sorbic acid, sorbitol, sorbiton monooleate, starch, pregelatinized starch, stearic acid, succinic acid, sucrose, talc, titanium dioxide, triacetin, triethyl citrate, vegetable stearin, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin C, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more excipients comprise silicified microcrystalline cellulose. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises from about 10% to about 75% of the one or more excipients by dry weight. In some embodiments, the one or more excipients is silicified microcrystalline cellulose and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises from about 10% to about 75% of the silicified microcrystalline cellulose by dry weight. In some embodiments, the one or more excipients is silicified microcrystalline cellulose and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises from about 45% to about 55% of the silicified microcrystalline cellulose by dry weight. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is in a dosage form that is a liquid, gel, cream, powder, tablet, capsule, gel capsule, effervescent tablet, or lozenge. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is in a dosage form that is a powder and wherein the powder is packaged in a sachet. In some embodiments, the sachet contains from about 1 g to about 25 g of the prebiotic composition. In some embodiments, the effective amount of the prebiotic composition is from about 1 g to about 25 g. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is administered one, two, or three times a day. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is administered twice a day. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is administered each day for a predetermined number of days. In some embodiments, the predetermined number of days is from 1 day to about 60 days. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is a powder and wherein the powder is mixed with a liquid prior to administering to the subject. In some embodiments, the liquid is a non- dairy liquid. In some embodiments, the administering is based on a body mass measurement of the subject. In some embodiments, the body mass measurement is used to place the subject in a treatment category. In some embodiments, the body mass measurement is used to place the subject in a treatment category, wherein the treatment category comprises subjects weighing less than or equal to about 150 Lbs, subjects weighing from about 151 to 200 Lbs, or subjects weighing greater than about 200 Lbs. In some embodiments, an amount of the pharmaceutical composition administered to the subject is based upon the body mass measurement of the subject. In some embodiments, the amount of the pharmaceutical composition is from about 1 g to about 50 g per day for subjects in a first treatment category. In some embodiments, the amount of the pharmaceutical composition is about 1 g to about 20 g per day higher for subjects in a second treatment category than for subjects in the first treatment category and wherein the second treatment category comprises heavier subjects than the first treatment category. In some embodiments, the amount of the pharmaceutical composition is about 1 g to about 20 g per day higher for subjects in a third treatment category than for subjects in the second treatment category and wherein the third treatment category comprises heavier subjects than the second treatment category. In some embodiments, a number of dosing units the subject is administered per day is based upon the body mass measurement of the subject. In some embodiments, the number of dosing units is from about 1 to about 30 per day for subjects in a first treatment category. In some embodiments, the number of dosing units is about 1 to about 10 higher per day for subjects in a second treatment category than for subjects in the first treatment category and wherein the second treatment category comprises heavier subjects than the first treatment category. In some embodiments, the number of dosing units is about 1 to about 10 higher per day for subjects in a third treatment category than for subjects in the second treatment category and wherein the third treatment category comprises heavier subjects than the second treatment category. In some embodiments, a number of days the subject is treated is based upon the body mass measurement of the subject. In some embodiments, the number of days is from about 1 day to about 60 days for subjects in a first treatment category. In some embodiments, the number of days is from about 1 day to about 30 days longer for subjects in a second treatment category than for subjects in the first treatment category and wherein the second treatment category comprises heavier subjects than the first treatment category. In some embodiments, the number of days is from about 1 day to about 30 days longer for subjects in a third treatment category than for subjects in the second treatment category and wherein the third treatment category comprises heavier subjects than the second treatment category. In some embodiments, the first treatment category comprises subjects weighing less than or equal to about 150 Lbs. In some embodiments, the first treatment category comprises subjects weighing less than or equal to about 150 Lbs and wherein the second treatment category comprises subjects weighing from about 150 Lbs to about 200 Lbs. In some embodiments, the first treatment category comprises subjects weighing less than or equal to about 150 Lbs, wherein the second treatment category comprises subjects weighing from about 150 Lbs to about 200 Lbs, and wherein the third treatment category comprises subjects weighing greater than about 200 Lbs. In some embodiments, a treatment regimen comprises administering a higher amount of the pharmaceutical composition at the end of the treatment regimen than at the beginning of the treatment regimen. In some embodiments, a treatment regimen comprises administering a higher amount of the pharmaceutical composition at the end of the treatment regimen than at the beginning of the treatment regimen and wherein a rate at which the amount of the pharmaceutical composition administered to the subject per day increases is based upon the body mass measurement. In some embodiments, the rate at which the amount of the pharmaceutical composition administered to the subject per day increases is higher for subjects in a second treatment category than for subjects in a first treatment category, wherein the second treatment category comprises heavier subjects than the first treatment category. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises one or more probiotics. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition does not comprise a probiotic. In some embodiments, the one or more excipients do not comprise lactose, glucose, or galactose.

[0062] In one aspect of the methods described, the reduction or elimination of symptoms persists after treatment of a condition has concluded. Thus, the described methods need not be used on a continuous basis but rather can be utilized for a discrete time period and then discontinued. In another aspect of the methods, reduction or elimination of symptoms can be temporary, and after an amount of time has passed, treatment can be administered when symptoms reappear to maintain the effects of the methods described herein. In yet another aspect of the methods, the methods described can be administered on a regular basis for reducing symptoms of lactose intolerance and for improving overall gastrointestinal (GI) health.

[0063] In another aspect compositions and methods comprising a prebiotic composition are provided that are useful for treatment of lactose intolerance, reduction of symptoms of lactose intolerance, and for improving overall gastrointestinal (GI) health. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition is a pharmaceutical composition. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises one or more saccharides (herein, interchangeably also referred to as carbohydrates or sugars) which are non-digestible by a human digestive system. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition consists essentially of a saccharide which is non-digestible by a human digestive system. In one embodiment, the one or more saccharides are oligosaccharides wherein the degree of polymerization (DP) is from 2 to 20. In one embodiment the degree of polymerization can be 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20. In another embodiment, the one or more saccharides are a polysaccharide wherein the degree of polymerization is greater than 10. In another embodiment, the saccharide comprises a mixture of non-digestible oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises one or more digestible saccharides and one or more non- digestible oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. In one embodiment the saccharide is an oligosaccharide, such as a disaccharide, a trisaccharide, a tetrasaccharide, a pentasaccharide, a hexasaccharide, a heptasaccharide, an octasaccharide, a nanasaccharide, or a decasaccharide. Saccharides that are not digestible by humans include, but are not limited to, transgalactooligosaccharides, galacto-oligosaccharides, lactulose, raffinose, stachyose, lactosucrose, fructo-oligosaccharides, isomalto-oligosaccharides, xylo-oligosaccharides, paratinose oligosaccharides, difructose anhydride ΙΠ, sorbitol, maltitol, lactitol, reduced paratinose, cellulose, β-glucose, β-galactose, β-fructose, verbascose, galactinol, and β-glucan, guar gum, pectin, high sodium alginate, and lambda carrageenan.

[0064] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises a saccharide that is inulin, fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS), lactulose, galacto-oligosaccharide (GOS), raffinose, or stachyose. In another embodiment the saccharide is an oligosaccharide that is non-digestible by a human digestive system, contains at least one beta-glycosidic (e.g., beta galactosidic or beta glucosidic) bond, and would induce lactose digestion when fed to a subject in need thereof. In one embodiment the subject in need thereof is a human. In another embodiment the saccharide is an oligosaccharide that is non-digestible by a human digestive system and contains at least one beta-glycosidic (e.g., beta galactosidic or beta glucosidic) bond that can be digested by a bacterium. In one embodiment the bacterium is a probiotic. In one embodiment the saccharide is an oligosaccharide that is non-digestible by a human digestive system and contains at least one alpha-glycosidic bond. In one embodiment the bacterium is a lactobacilli or a bifidobacteria. In one embodiment the saccharide is GOS.

[0065] In another embodiment the saccharide is an oligosaccharide that is non- digestible by a human digestive system, contains at least one alpha-glycosidic (e.g., alpha galactosidic or alpha glucosidic) bond, and would induce lactose digestion when fed to a subject in need thereof. In one embodiment the subject in need thereof is a human. In another embodiment the saccharide is an oligosaccharide that is non-digestible by a human digestive system and contains at least one alpha-glycosidic (e.g., alpha galactosidic or alpha glucosidic) bond that can be metabolized by a bacterium. In one embodiment the bacterium is a probiotic. In one embodiment the bacterium is a lactobacilli or a bifidobacteria. In one embodiment the saccharide is GOS.

[0066] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises at least one non- digestible saccharide and optionally contains one or more digestible saccharides or oligosaccharides. Digestible saccharides are those which are digestible by a human digestive system. In one embodiment, the one or more digestible saccharide is lactose, galactose, or glucose. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition does not contain lactose. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition does not contain any probiotic bacteria. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition contains at least one strain of probiotic bacteria.

[0067] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition contains an oligosaccharide that increases β-galactosidase activity in the large intestine. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition contains an oligosaccharide that increases the amount of probiotic activity in the large intestine.

//. Prebiotics

[0068] Prebiotics are non-digestible substances that when consumed provide a beneficial physiological effect on the host by selectively stimulating the favorable growth or activity of a limited number of indigenous bacteria (Gibson GR, Roberfroid MB. Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics. J Nutr. 1995 Jun;125(6):1401-12.). A prebiotic is generally a saccharide that is non-digestible or essentially non-digestible by a human and acts to encourage the growth of probiotic bacteria in the gut, increase adhesion of probiotic bacteria in the gut, displace pathogens, or provide a fermentable dose of carbohydrate to probiotic bacteria (symbiotic) or selected commensal bacteria and increase the levels of those microbial populations (notably lactobacilli and bifidobacteria) in the gastrointestinal tract. A prebiotic can be a saccharide that is non-digestible by the human host and can act as a non-digestible fiber in the diet. This non-digestibility is because humans lack the enzymes to break down some or all of the prebiotic oligosaccharide as it travels through the digestive tract. When a prebiotic reaches the small intestine and colon, bacteria encoding an enzyme or enzymes capable of digesting the prebiotic can break down the prebiotic into simple sugars that the bacteria can use. For example, bifidobacteria and lactobacilli have been reported to digest prebiotic saccharides.

[0069] Suitable prebiotics can include one or more of a carbohydrate, carbohydrate monomer, carbohydrate oligomer, or carbohydrate polymer. In one embodiment, the prebiotics are non-non-digestible saccharides, which include non-non-digestible monosaccharides, non- digestible oligosaccharides, or non-non-digestible polysaccharides. In one embodiment, the sugar units of an oligosaccharide or polysaccharide can be linked in a single straight chain or can be a chain with one or more side branches. The length of the oligosaccharide or polysaccharide can vary from source to source. In one embodiment, small amounts of glucose can also be contained in the chain. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition can be partially hydrolyzed or contain individual sugar moieties that are components of the primary oligosaccharide.

[0070] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition described herein consists essentially of one or more non-digestible saccharides. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition consists essentially of one or more non-digestible oligosaccharides. In one embodiment, the non-digestible oligosaccharides are GOS. In other embodiments, a composition described herein consists essentially of non-digestible GOS and does not contain a probiotic microbe, or microbes.

[0071] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition allows the colonic microbiota, comprising microorganisms known to increase the ability of a subject to tolerate fermentable carbohydrates, to be regularly maintained or replenished through consumption of the prebiotic composition. In one embodiment, adaptation of the intestinal and colonic microbiota increases the intestine and colon's capacity to use lactose without producing gas. Adaptive changes in microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract can be useful for the reduction of bloating, diarrhea, gastric distention, pain, or flatulence from the consumption of dairy products and other lactose containing compositions. In one embodiment, tolerance of a human subject to dairy products, in general, can be improved through regular consumption of a prebiotic composition.

[0072] Prebiotics can promote colonic bacteria that slow fermentation. For example, FOS, neosugar, or inulin promotes the growth of acid-forming bacteria in the colon such as bacteria belonging to the genera Lactobacillus or Bifidobacterium. For instance, Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifido bacterium bifidus can play a role in reducing the number of pathogenic bacteria in the colon. Additional properties, such as the effect of prebiotics on colonic pH and stool bulking provide for their classification as dietary fibers. In experimental models, prebiotics can improve the bioavailability of essential minerals. As a fiber, prebiotics are thought to slow digestion. Other polymers, such as various galactans and carbohydrate based gums, such as psyllium, guar, carrageen, gellan, and konjac, are also known to improve gastrointestinal (GI) health. The carbohydrate lactulose can also improve GI health.

[0073] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises one or more of GOS, lactulose, raffinose, stachyose, lactosucrose, FOS (i.e. oligofructose or oligofructan), inulin, isomalto-oligosaccharide, xylo-oligosaccharide, paratinose oligosaccharide, transgalactosylated oligosaccharides (i.e. transgalacto-oligosaccharides), transgalactosylate disaccharides, soybean oligosaccharides (i.e. soyoligosaccharides), gentiooligosaccharides, glucooligosaccharides, pecticoligosaccharides, palatinose polycondensates, difructose anhydride ΙΠ, sorbitol, maltitol, lactitol, polyols, polydextrose, reduced paratinose, cellulose, β-glucose, β-galactose, β-fructose, verbascose, galactinol, and β-glucan, guar gum, pectin, high, sodium alginate, and lambda carrageenan, or mixtures thereof.

[0074] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a mixture of one or more non-digestible oligosaccharides, non-digestible polysaccharides, free monosaccharides, non-digestible saccharides, starch, or non-starch polysaccharides. In one embodiment, a prebiotic component of a prebiotic composition is a GOS composition. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition is a pharmaceutical composition. In one embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition is a GOS composition.

[0075] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition reduces or eliminates one or more symptoms associated with lactose intolerance or with lactose digestive problems, including but not limited to cramps, flatulence, stomach pain, vomiting, bloating, diarrhea, nausea, gastric distention and intestinal pain, in a subject in need thereof. In one embodiment the subject is a patient. In another embodiment the subject is a human. In another embodiment the subject is a non-human animal.

[0076] The term "about" means the referenced numeric indication plus or minus 10% of that referenced numeric indication.

[0077] The term "percent by weight," as used in reference to the percent by weight of a component in a composition, means the percentage of the component' s weight in comparison to the total dry weight of the composition.

A. Oligosaccharide structure

[0078] Oligosaccharides are generally considered to have a reducing end and a non- reducing end, whether or not the saccharide at the reducing end is in fact a reducing sugar. In accordance with accepted nomenclature, most oligosaccharides are depicted herein with the non- reducing end on the left and the reducing end on the right. Most oligosaccharides described herein are described with the name or abbreviation for the non-reducing saccharide (e.g., Gal or D-Gal), preceded or followed by the configuration of the glycosidic bond (a or β), the ring bond, the ring position of the reducing saccharide involved in the bond, and then the name or abbreviation of the reducing saccharide (e.g., Glc or D-Glc). The linkage (e.g., glycosidic linkage, galactosidic linkage, glucosidic linkage) between two sugar units can be expressed, for example, as 1,4, 1— > 4, or (1-4) Each saccharide is in the cyclic form (i.e. pyranose or furanose form). For example, lactose is a dissaccharide composed of cyclic forms of galactose and glucose joined by a beta (1-4) linkage where the acetal oxygen bridge is in the beta orientation. Lactose exists as alpha- and beta-lactose (see structures below), β-lactose can be expressed as β- D-galactopyranosyl-(l-4) -D-glucopyranose, -D-Gal-(1-4 -D-Glc or as Gal (l-4)-Glc. a- lactose can be expressed as -D-galactopyranosyl-(l-4) a-D-glucopyranose, -D-Gal-(l-4)- a-D- Glc or as Gal (l-4)-Glc.

[0079] Both FOS and GOS are non-digestible saccharides, β glycosidic linkages of saccharides, such as those found in, but not limited to, FOS and GOS, make these prebiotics mainly non-digestible and unabsorbable in the stomach and small intestine (see below). Also, a- linked GOS (a-GOS) is not hydrolyzed by human salivary amylase, but can be used by Bifidobacterium bifidum and Clostridium butyricum (Yamashita A. et al. (2004) J. Appl. Glycosci. 51 : 115-122). FOS and GOS can pass through the small intestine and into the large intestine (colon) mostly intact, except where probiotic and commensal microbes are able to metabolize the oligosaccharides.

B. GOS

1. Introduction

[0080] GOS (also known as galacto-oligosaccharides, galactooligosaccharides, trans- oligosaccharide (TOS), irans-galacto-oligosaccharide (TGOS), and trans- galactooligosaccharide) are oligomers or polymers of galactose molecules ending mainly with a glucose or sometimes ending with a galactose molecule and have varying degree of polymerization (generally the DP is between 2-20) and type of linkages. In one embodiment, GOS comprises galactose and glucose molecules. In another embodiment, GOS comprises only galactose molecules. In a further embodiment, GOS are galactose-containing oligosaccharides of the form of [ -D-Gal-(l-6)]_n- -D-Gal-(l-4)-D-Glc wherein n is 2-20. In another embodiment, GOS are galactose-containing oligosaccharides of the form Glc α1-4-[β Gal l-6]_n where n=2-20. In another embodiment, GOS are in the form of a-D-Glc (l-4)-[ -D-Gal-(l-6)-]_n where n=2-20. Gal is a galactopyranose unit and Glc (or Glu) is a glucopyranose unit.

[0081] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS-related compound. A GOS-related compound can have the following properties: a) a "lactose" moiety; e.g., GOS with a gal-glu moiety and any polymerization value or type of linkage; or b) be stimulatory to "lactose fermenting" microbes in the human GI tract; for example, raffinose (gal- fru-glu) is a "related" GOS compound that is stimulatory to both lactobacilli and bifidobacteria.

[0082] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises GOS with a low degree of polymerization. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS with a low degree of polymerization increases growth of probiotic and select commensal bacteria to a greater extent than an equivalent amount of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS with a high degree of polymerization. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprising a high percentage of GOS with a low degree of polymerization increases growth of probiotic and beneficial commensal bacteria to a greater extent than an equivalent amount of a prebiotic composition comprising a low percentage of GOS with a low degree of polymerization. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS with a degree of polymerization less than 20, such as less than 10, less than 9, less than 8, less than 7, less than 6, less than 5, less than 4, or less than 3. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS with a low degree of polymerization increases growth of probiotic and/or beneficial commensal microbes in the GI tract of a subject. 2. GOS synthesis

[0083] GOS is found in human and bovine maternal milk. GOS can be produced from lactose syrup using the transgalactosylase activity of the enzyme β-galactosidase (Crittenden, (1999) Probiotics: A Critical Review. Tannock, G. (ed) Horizon Scientific Press, Wymondham, pp. 141-156). β-D-galactosidase is known to catalyze not only the hydrolysis of the β-D-galactoside linkage of lactose to give D-glucose and D-galactose but also to carry out transgalactosylation reactions where the D-galactosyl group of a β-D-galactoside is transferred onto a hydroxylated acceptor. For example, when a β-D-galactoside such as lactose or another carbohydrate is present, it is possible to obtain new glycoside linkages between the D-galactose unit and the acceptor. The starting galactoside such as lactose can also be present in a GOS mixture following the transgalactosylation reactions. As used herein, GOS comprises one or more saccharides that have been produced from a glycoside and the transgalactosylation reaction of a β-galactosidase. Thus, GOS includes saccharides such as transgalactosylated oligosaccharides (i.e. transgalacto-oligosaccharides) or transgalactosylate disaccharides. The DP of the formed oligosaccharide can vary, typically from 2-20, depending on the enzyme source. In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a blend of one more saccharides with a DP range of 2-6 (i.e. di- through hexasaccharides). In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a blend of one or more saccharides with a DP range of 2-8 (i.e. di- through octasaccharides). In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a blend of one or more saccharides with a DP range of greater than 8. In yet another embodiment, a GOS composition is a blend of one or more saccharides with a DP range of 9-15. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a blend of one or more saccharides with a DP of 1, a DP range of 2-6, a DP range of 6-8, and DP range of greater than 8.

3. GOS linkages

[0084] Linkages between the individual sugar units found in GOS include β-(1-6), β- (1-4), β-(1-3) and β-(1-2) linkages. β-(1-3) linkages are less common than β-(1-6) or β-(1-4) linkages. In one embodiment, GOS comprises a number of β-(1-6) linked or β-(1-4) galactopyranosyl units linked to a terminal glucopyranosyl residue through an a-(l-4) glycosidic bond. In another embodiment, GOS comprises a number of β-(1-6) linked or β-(1-4) galactopyranosyl units linked to a terminal glucopyranosyl residue through a β-(1-4) glycosidic bond. In another embodiment, GOS formed by transgalactosylation comprise β-D- galactopyranosyl-(l-3) linkages. In one embodiment, GOS are branched saccharides. Branched oligosaccharides can be formed as an artifact of the transgalactosylation reaction. In another embodiment, GOS are linear saccharides. Non-limiting GOS examples include the following shown below:

t 2 3

4 4

1

†

1

6 i

10 n

[0085] The source of the β-galactosidase can determine the GOS end products from transgalactosylation reactions. For example, β-galactosidase from Streptococcus thermophilus can produce a collection of transgalactosylated disaccharides including Gai (1-6) Glc, Gai (1- 3) Glc, Gal (1-2) Glc, and Gal (1-6) Gal (Matsumoto et al., (1992), Chapter 5: Galactooligosaccharides, in Japanese Technology Reviews, ed. by Karbe, I., Gordon and Breach, NY, pp. 90-160). Transgalactosylated oligosaccharides (TOS) can be produced using β- galactosidase from Aspergillus oryzae (Tanaka et al, (1983) Bifidobacteria Microflora, 2, 17- 24), and consists of tri-, tetra-, penta- and hexa-GOS. In another embodiment GOS are prepared using β-galactosidase from A. oryzae and Streptococcus thermophilus (Ito et al., (1990), Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease, 3, 285-292) and contains 36% tri-, tetra-, penta- and hexa-GOS, 16% disaccharides galactosyl-glucose and galactosyl-galactose, 38% monosaccharides, and 10% lactose.

[0086] In one embodiment a strain of Bifidobacterium bifidum (for example, accession number NCIMB 41171) produces a galactosidase activity that converts lactose to a GOS mixture comprising the disaccharide Gal a (1-6) Gal, at least one trisaccharide selected from Gal β (l-6)-Gal β (l-4)-Glc and Gal β (l-3)-Gal β (l-4)-Glc, the tetrasaccharide Gal β (1- 6)-Gal β (l-6)-Gal β (l-4)-Glc and the pentasaccharide Gal β (l-6)-Gal β (l-6)-Gal β (l-6)-Gal β (l-4)-Glc. In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of 10 to 45% w/v of the disaccharide, 10 to 45% w/v of the trisaccharide, 10 to 45% w/v of the tetrasaccharide and 10 to 45% w/v of the pentasaccharide.

[0087] In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 20-28 % by weight of β (1-3) linkages, 20-25 % by weight of β (1-4) linkages, and 45-55 % by weight of β (1-6) linkages. In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 26 % by weight of β (1-3) linkages, 23 % by weight of β (1-4) linkages, and 51 % by weight of β (1-6) linkages.

[0088] Alpha-GOS (also called alpha-bond GOS or alpha-linked GOS) are oligosaccharides having an alpha-galactopyranosyl group. Alpha-GOS comprises at least one alpha glycosidic linkage between the saccharide units. Alpha-GOS are generally represented by a-(Gal)_n (n usually represents an integer of 2 to 10) or a-(Gal)_n Glc (n usually represents an integer of 1 to 9). Examples include a mixture of a-galactosylglucose, a-galactobiose, a- galactotriose, a-galactotetraose, and higher oligosaccharides. Additional non-limiting examples include melibiose, manninootriose, raffinose, stachyose, and the like, which can be produced from beat, soybean oligosaccharide, and the like.

[0089] Commercially available and enzyme synthesized alpha-GOS products are also useful for the compositions described herein. Synthesis of alpha-GOS with an enzyme is conducted utilizing the dehydration condensation reaction of a-galactosidase with the use of galactose, galactose-containing substance, or glucose as a substrate. The galactose-containing substance includes hydrolysates of galactose-containing substances, for example, a mixture of galactose and glucose obtained by allowing beta-galactosidase to act on lactose, and the like. Glucose can be mixed separately with galactose and be used as a substrate with a-galactosidase (see e.g., WO 02/18614). Methods of preparing alpha-GOS have been described (see e.g., EP1514551 and EP2027863).

[0090] In one embodiment, a GOS composition comprises a mixture of saccharides that are alpha-GOS and saccharides that are produced by transgalactosylation using β- galactosidase. In another embodiment, GOS comprises alpha-GOS. In another embodiment, alpha-GOS comprises a-(Gal)2 from 10% to 100% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS comprises only saccharides that are produced by transgalactosylation using β-galactosidase.

[0091] In one embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise GOS with alpha linkages and beta linkages.

4. GOS saccharide unit composition

[0092] In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20 % by weight of di-saccharides, 1-20 % by weight tri-saccharides, 1-20 % by weight tetra-saccharide, and 1-20 % by weight penta-saccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides consisting essentially of 1-20 % by weight of di-saccharides, 1-20 % by weight tri-saccharides, 1-20 % by weight tetra-saccharide, and 1-20 % by weight penta-saccharides. In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20 % by weight of saccharides with DP of 1-3, 1-20 % by weight of saccharides with DP of 4-6, 1-20 % by weight of saccharides with DP of 7-9, and 1-20 % by weight of saccharides with DP of 10-12, 1-20 % by weight of saccharides with DP of 13-15.

[0093] In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight of di-saccharidesdisaccharides, 55-75% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight tri-saccharides, 1-20% by weight tetra- saccharidepentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight penta-saccharideshexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides consisting essentially of 1- 20% by weight of di-saccharidesdisaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25-50% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight tri-saccharides, 1-20% by weight tetra- saccharidepentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight penta- saccharideshexasaccharides.trisaccharidespentasaccharides. In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight of saccharides with DP of 1-3, 1-20% by weight of saccharides with DP of 4-6, 1-20% by weight of saccharides with DP of 7-9, and 1-20% by weight of saccharides with DP of 10-12, 1-20% by weight of saccharides with DP of 13-15.

[0094] In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 ratio of saccharides with a DP of 2:3:4:5:6. In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a 1:2:3:2: 1 : 1 ratio of saccharides with a DP of 1 :2:3:4:5:6. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a (12 to 13):(4 to 5): 1 ratio of saccharides with a DP of 3:4:5. In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a 12.3: 4.8: 1 ratio of saccharides with a DP of 3:4:5. In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a (8-10):(10-15):(4-6):(l-3) ratio of saccharides with a DP of 2:3:4:5.

[0095] In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 50-55 % by weight of di-saccharides, 20-30 % by weight tri-saccharides, 10-20 % by weight tetra-saccharide, and 1-10 % by weight penta-saccharides. In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 52 % by weight of di-saccharides, 26 % by weight tri-saccharides, 14 % by weight tetra-saccharide, and 5 % by weight pentasaccharides.

[0096] In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 45-55 % by weight tri-saccharides, 15-25 % by weight tetra-saccharides, 1-10 % by weight penta-saccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 49.3 % by weight tri-saccharides, 19 % by weight tetra-saccharides, 4 % by weight penta-saccharides.

[0097] In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 2-5 % by weight of a mixture of tri- to hexa-saccharides, 25-35 % by weight Gai (1-6) Glc, 5-15 % by weight Gal (1-3) Glc, 5-15 % by weight Gal (1-2) Glc, 25-30 % by weight Gai (1-6) Gal, and 1-5% by weight Gai (1-3) Gal, and optionally further contains one or more digestible saccharides or oligosaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 3.9 % by weight of a mixture of tri- to hexa- saccharides, 32.6 % by weight Gal (1-6) Glc, 7.6 % by weight Gal (1-3) Glc, 9.4 % by weight Gal (1-2) Glc, 27.2 % by weight Gal (1-6) Gal, and 2.5% Gal (1-3) Gal, and optionally further contains one or more digestible saccharides or oligosaccharides. Digestible saccharides or oligosaccharides are carbohydrates that can be digested by the human digestive system, and include but are not limited to lactose, galactose, or glucose. In one embodiment digestible saccharides found in a GOS composition comprise lactose, galactose, or glucose. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of non-digestible oligosaccharides and lactose, glucose or galactose. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is composed of 62 % by weight oligosaccharides and 38% digestible saccharides.

[0098] In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% disaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 11%, 12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19%, 20% by weight disaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-5%, 1-10%, 1-15%, 1-20%, 5- 10%, 10-15%, 15-20% by weight disaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising at least 55% trisaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55%, 56%, 57%, 58%, 59%, 60%, 61%, 62%, 63%, 64%, 65%, 70%, or 75% by weight trisaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60%, 55-61%, 55-62%, 55-63%, 55-64%, 55-65%, 55-70%, 55-75%, 60-65%, 65-70%, 70-75% by weight trisaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture comprising at least 25% tetrasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, 30%, 31%, 32%, 33%, 34%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by weight tetrasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 25-30%, 25-31%, 25-32%, 25-33%, 25-34%, 25-35%, 25-40%, 25- 45%, 25-50%, 30-35%, 35-40%, 40-45%, 45-50% by weight tetrasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 11%, 12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19%, 20% by weight pentasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-5%, 1-10%, 1-15%, 1-20%, 5-10%, 10-15%, 15-20% by weight pentasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 11%, 12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19%, 20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-5%, 1-10%, 1-15%, 1-20%, 5-10%, 10-15%, 15-20% by weight hexasaccharides.

[0099] In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-70% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-75% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-40% by weight tetrasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-45% by weight tetrasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-50% by weight tetrasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25- 30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-70% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-75% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-40% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-45% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-50% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-70% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-75% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-40% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-45% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-50% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1- 20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55- 70% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55- 75% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55- 60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55- 60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-40% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55- 60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-45% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55- 60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-50% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides.

[0100] In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-5% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1- 20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 10-15% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 15-20% by weight disaccharides, 55- 65% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55- 57.5% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 57.5%- 60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 60%- 62.5% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 62.5%- 65% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 65%- 67.5% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 67.5%- 70% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 70%- 72.5% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 72.5%- 75% by weight trisaccharides, 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides.

[0101] In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25-27.5% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 27.5%-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 30%-32.5% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 30%-32.5% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 32.5%-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-5% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 10-15% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 15-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-20% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 5-10% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 10-15% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-20% by weight disaccharides, 55-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 1-20% by weight pentasaccharides, and 15-20% by weight hexasaccharides. [0102] In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 1-5% by weight disaccharides, 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 55-57.5% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 57.5-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 60-62.5% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 62.5%-65% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 55%-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25%-27.5% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 55%-60% by weight trisaccharides, 27.5-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 55%-60% by weight trisaccharides, 30-32.5% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 55-60% by weight trisaccharides, 32.5-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 55%-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-7.5% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 55%-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 7.5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 55%-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 1-2.5% by weight hexasaccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharides comprising 5-10% by weight disaccharides, 55%-60% by weight trisaccharides, 25-30% by weight tetrasaccharides, 5-10% by weight pentasaccharides, and 2.5-5% by weight hexasaccharides.

5. GOS and saccharimetric measurement

[0103] In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises a mixture of oligosaccharides, wherein the composition has a saccharimetric measurement at least about 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, or 100 degrees Brix. In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises a mixture of oligosaccharides, wherein the composition has a saccharimetric measurement of between about 50-100, 50-80, 60-80, or 70-80 degrees Brix. In another embodiment, a GOS composition has a saccharimetric measurement of between about 72 and 78 degrees Brix. For example, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 93% GOS and have a saccharimetric degree of 75 degrees Brix. In another embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 93% GOS, less than about 5% digestible saccharides (such as lactose, glucose, and galactose), and have a saccharimetric degree of 75+ degrees Brix. In yet another embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 93% GOS, less than about 5% digestible saccharides, less than about lOppm heavy metals, less than 0.1% sulphated ash, and have a saccharimetric measurement of 75 degrees Brix.

[0104] In another embodiment a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 95% GOS and have a saccharimetric degree of 75 degrees Brix. In another embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 95% GOS, less than about 5% digestible saccharides (such as lactose, glucose, and galactose), and have a saccharimetric degree of 75+ degrees Brix. In yet another embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 95% GOS, less than about 5% digestible saccharides, less than about lOppm heavy metals, less than 0.1% sulphated ash, and have a saccharimetric measurement of 75 degrees Brix.

[0105] In another embodiment a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 96% GOS and have a saccharimetric degree of 75 degrees Brix. In another embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 96% GOS, less than about 5% digestible saccharides (such as lactose, glucose, and galactose), and have a saccharimetric degree of 75+ degrees Brix. In yet another embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 96% GOS, less than about 5% digestible saccharides, less than about lOppm heavy metals, less than 0.1% sulphated ash, and have a saccharimetric measurement of 75 degrees Brix.

6. Percentages and amounts of GOS in prebiotic compositions

[0106] In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises 1-100% by weight GOS. The percentage by weight of GOS refers to the weight of GOS relative to the total dry weight of the GOS composition. In this application, compositions containing GOS may be referred to as GOS [Number], where [Number] refers to the percent by weight of GOS relative to the total dry weight of the GOS composition within the actual composition contains between 90 to 100 % of the claimed amount. For example, GOS 60 refers to a composition that contains between 54% and 66% GOS by weight relative to the total dry weight of the composition. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 1% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 5% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 10% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 20% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 30% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 40% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 50% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 60% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 70% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises 72.3% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 80% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 85% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 90% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 91% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 92% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 93% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 94% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 95% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 96% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 96.8% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 97% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 98% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 99% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 100% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises between 0.1% and 100% GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 11%, 12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, 30%, 31%, 32%, 33%, 34%, 35%, 36%, 37%, 38%, 39%, 40%, 41%, 42%, 43%, 44%, 45%, 46%, 47%, 48%, 49%, 50%, 51%, 52%, 53%, 54%, 55%, 56%, 57%, 58%, 59%, 60%, 61%, 62%, 63%, 64%, 65%, 66%, 67%, 68%, 69%, 70%, 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79% 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5 %, or 100% by weight GOS. The percentage by weight of GOS refers to the weight of GOS relative to the total dry weight of the prebiotic or GOS composition.

[0107] In another embodiments, a prebiotic composition or pharmaceutical composition comprises a GOS composition, wherein the GOS composition comprises about 90%, 90.1%, 90.2%, 90.3%, 90.4%, 90.5%, 90.6%, 90.7%, 90.8%, 90.9%, 91%, 91.1%, 91.2%, 91.3%, 91.4%, 91.5%, 91.6%, 91.7%, 91.8%, 91.9%, 92%, 92.1%, 92.2%, 92.3%, 92.4%, 92.5%, 92.6%, 92.7%, 92.8%, 92.9%, 93 %, 93.1%, 93.2%, 93.3%, 93.4%, 93.5%, 93.6%, 93.7%, 93.8%, 93.9%, 94%, 94.1%, 94.2%, 94.3%, 94.4%, 94.5%, 94.6%, 94.7%, 94.8%, 94.9%, 95%, 95.1%, 95.2%, 95.3%, 95.4%, 95.5%, 95.6%, 95.7%, 95.8%, 95.9%, 96%, 96.1%, 96.2%, 96.3%, 96.4%, 96.5%, 96.6%, 96.7%, 96.8%, 96.9%, 97%, 97.1%. 97.2%, 97.3%, 97.4%, 97.5%, 97.6%, 97.7%, 97.8%, 97.9%, 98%, 98.1%, 98.2%, 98.3%, 98.4%, 98.5%, 98.6%, 98.7%, 98.8%, 98.9%, 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 100% by weight GOS. The percentage by weight of GOS refers to the weight of GOS relative to the total dry weight of the prebiotic or GOS composition.

[0108] In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 1-90%, about 10-90%, about 20- 90%, about 30-90%, about 40-90%, about 40-80%, about 40-70%, about 40-60%, about 40- 50%, about 50-90%, about 50-80%, about 50-70%, about 50-60%, about 60-90%, about 60- 80%, about 60-70%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about 80- 90%, about 90-96%, about 93-96%, about 93-95%, about 94-98%, about 93-99%, or about 90- 100% by weight GOS. The percentage by weight of GOS refers to the weight of GOS relative to the total dry weight of the prebiotic or GOS composition.

[0109] In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises 0.01-20 g of a GOS composition, such as about 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, 15, 15.5, 16, 16.5, 17, 17.5, 18, 18.5, 19, 19.5, or about 20 g of GOS composition. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 0.1 -2g of a GOS composition.

[0110] A prebiotic product can comprise GOS for improving gut health by promoting the growth of bifidobacteria in the gut. In one embodiment, high purity GOS compositions (about or greater than 85% GOS by weight, e.g. GOS 95) selectively increases intestinal populations of beneficial bacteria or enteric colonization of lactose metabolizing bacteria, such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, without increasing the growth of harmful bacteria or without a similar and proportionate increase in many undesirable microbes., such as Escherichia coli (E. coli). This can be in contrast to compositions with lower percentage by weight GOS. For example, contaminating simple carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, galactose, lactose) may have been sufficient to stimulate the growth of E. coli strains to levels equal to free glucose. Thus, higher purity GOS formulations can have a greater potential to selectively promote the growth of beneficial lactobacilli and bifidobacteria. Increased colonization of lactose metabolizing colonic bacteria, such as beneficial, lactose-fermenting lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, has been associated with increased β-galactosidase activity and GOS utilization, thereby increasing the fermentation of lactose into galactose, glucose and short chain fatty acids. In one embodiment, a high purity GOS composition reduces lactose-derived gas production and mitigates the symptoms of lactose intolerance. In one embodiment, metabolism of a GOS composition by lactobacilli and bifidobacteria yields organic acids and other agents that inhibit enteric pathogens. In another embodiment, a GOS composition provides a selective advantage for organisms in the gut that can use them. In another embodiment, a GOS composition acts as anti- adhesives for bacteria in the gut. In another embodiment a mixture of oligosaccharides is useful for the preparation of a medicament for preventing the adhesion of pathogens or toxins produced by pathogens to the gut wall. In another embodiment, the beneficial effect of high purity GOS compositions on the bacterial flora is with acute administration (<30 days). In one embodiment, the dose of GOS (-95%) is titrated from a starting dose as low as 1.5 g/day to a final dose of 12 g/day (6 g BID) at the end of either a 15-day or 30-day treatment period. In one embodiment, the dose of GOS (-95%) is equivalent to 200 mg/kg/day for a 60 kg adult.

[0111] In one embodiment a composition is provided that comprises a suitable amount of a prebiotic composition that is effective for promoting the growth of probiotics such that fermentation in the gut is slowed or gastrointestinal health is improved. In one embodiment prebiotics can be administered in an amount per serving from about lmg to about 20g, or about lmg to about 15g, or about lmg to about lOg, or about lmg to about 5g, or about 2mg to about lOOOmg, or about 2mg to about 500mg, or about 2mg to about 200mg, or about 2mg to about lOOmg, or about 2mg to about 50mg, or about 2mg to about 20mg, or about 5mg to about lOmg, or about 5, 6, 7, 7.5, 8, 9, or lOmg or about 0.25g to about 1.7g. In another embodiment a prebiotic can be administered in an amount per serving of about lg, about 2g, about 3g, about 4g, about 5g, about 6g, about 7g, about 8g, about 9g, about lOg, about 1 lg, about 12g, about 13g, about 14g, about 15g, about 16g, about 17g, about 18g, about 19g, or about 20g. In another embodiment, the prebiotic used can be from about O.lg to about 15g, or about O.lg to about lg, or about O.lg to about 0.5g or about O.lg to about 2g, or about 0.5g to about lg, or about 0.2g to about lg, or about lg to about 5g, or about lg to about 15g per serving.

[0112] In one embodiment, the smallest effective amount of prebiotic is used. The prebiotic can be about 0.5% to about 100% by weight of a prebiotic composition. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition (e.g., GOS) can be administered in a dose from about 1 mg to about 25 g, or about 1 mg to about 5 g, or about 1 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 1 mg to about 500 mg, or about 1 mg to about 200 mg, or about 1 mg to about 100 mg, or about 1 mg to about 50 mg, or about 2 mg to about 20 mg, or about 5 mg to about 10 mg, or about 5, 6, 7, 7.5, 8, 9, or 10 mg. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is used in a dose of about 7.5 mg. In one embodiment the dose of a prebiotic composition administered to a subject can be increased from about 1 g to about 10 g over time. In one embodiment an initial dose of a prebiotic composition can be 1-3 grams. This dose can be increased over time (e.g., days or a week) so that the final dose is about 10 g of GOS. In one embodiment, a high percentage GOS composition (e.g., GOS 95) is derived from a lower percentage GOS composition (e.g., GOS 60). In one embodiment, a high percentage GOS composition is a purified form of the food ingredient β-linked galacto-oligosaccharide.

[0113] In one embodiment, the GOS has a molecular weight of 342.29 + (162.15)_n-i,, and an empirical formula of C_n6H ₂₂₊(_n-i)ioO 6+n5. In one embodiment, the GOS has one or more of the following physical characteristics: clear or pale yellow syrup, sweet taste, freely soluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohols, insoluble in ether and chlorinated solvents, and a density >1.30 gram/mL.

[0114] In one embodiment, a GOS composition is an odorless, colorless to pale yellow, viscous liquid or syrup. In one embodiment, a GOS syrup is filled directly into high density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles containing one dose per bottle, without additional ingredients. In one embodiment, a GOS composition has the specification as shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1: EXAMPLE OF A GOS COMPOSITION SPECIFICATION

[0115] In one embodiment, a GOS syrup is stable when filled into HDPE bottles fitted with the cap. In one embodiment, capped bottles containing low and high dose GOS compositions have a stability at 25°C/60% RH and 40°C/75%RH for at least six months.

[0116] In one embodiment, a lower percentage GOS composition is purified to a pharmaceutical grade by the elimination of residual glucose, lactose and galactose by the organisms used in making bread (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and yogurt (Streptococcus thermophilis) to yield a high percentage GOS composition. Further processing can include ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, decolorization, deionization, and concentration to yield high percentage GOS compositions. High percentage GOS compositions can contain the same galacto oligosaccharides as low percentage GOS compositions. In one embodiment, the lower purity GOS composition is non-digestible fibers derived from lactose. In one embodiment, the purity of a high percentage GOS composition (e.g., GOS 95) is assessed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis.

7. GOS and other components of GOS compositions

[0117] Table 2 contains a product specification for a high purity GOS composition (GOS 95), illustrating the criteria used to evaluate purity of a GOS composition such as GOS 95.

TABLE 2: SPECIFICATION FOR A HIGH PURITY GOS

COMPOSITION (GOS 95)

Test Results

Viscosity Run and report

Specific Optical rotation +48.0° ÷ +55.0°

(10% solution)

Heavy metals (Pb²⁺) < 10 ppm

Sulphated ash ≤ 10%

Organic volatile impurity

Ethanol < 5000 ppm

Methanol < 3000 ppm

Microbiology

Bacterial count < 100 ufc/g

Mould and yeasts < 10 ufc/g

E.Coli Absent/g

Salmonella sp Absent/lOg

Table 3 contains release criteria for a GOS composition having >95% purity (GOS 95).

HI

[0118] Table 4 contains data from a certificate of analysis of a 96.8 % GOS composition, illustrating other components that can be in a prebiotic composition comprising a GOS composition.

TABLE 4: CERTIFICATE OF ANALYSIS

Test Results

substance

Purity GOS 96.8 %

Related substances

Lactose 2.0 %

Glucose <0.1 %

Galactose 1.1 %

Density 1,383 g/ml

Color (420 nm) 0.041 A.U.

Appearance of solution Clear

pH (10% solution) 5.8

Conductance (10% solution) 22.7

Viscosity 7295 cP

Organic Volatile Impurities

Methanol 17.0 ppm

Ethanol < 10 ppm

Heavy metals (Pb²⁺) < 10 ppm

Sulphated ashes 0.07 %

Specific optical rotation +44.6 °

T.A.M.C. (total aerobic 40 cfu/ml

microbial count)

T.Y.M.C. (total combined 5 cfu/ml

Yeasts and Molds count)

Salmonella s. Absent cfu/10 ml

Escherichia coli Absent cfu/ml

[0119] In some embodiments, a prebiotic comprises a GOS composition meeting the release criteria given in Table 3. In some embodiments, a prebiotic comprises a GOS composition meeting the acceptance criteria given in Table 5. In other embodiments, a prebiotic comprises a GOS composition as described in Table 6. TABLE 5. ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR GOS 95.

TABLE 6. ANALYSIS OF FIVE DIFFERENT SAMPLES OF GOS 95.

[0120] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 70% by weight GOS, about 3% by weight moisture, about 30% by weight other saccharides, about 0.1% by weight ash, about 1 ppm heavy metal (e.g., Pb), and about 1 ppm arsenic (AS2O3). In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 70- 75% by weight GOS, about 1-3% by weight moisture, about 20% by weight lactose, less than 1 % by weight glucose, less than 1 % by weight galactose, about 0.1% by weight ash, about 1 ppm heavy metal (e.g., Pb), and about 1 ppm arsenic (AS2O3).

[0121] In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises GOS and one or more of water or digestible saccharides. In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises less than about lOppm of a heavy metal (such as arsenic or lead), including but not limited to less than about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or lppm of a heavy metal. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises less than about 0.10% sulphated ash, including but not limited to less than about 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1% sulphated ash. In another embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 90% GOS, less than about 5% digestible saccharides, less than about lOppm of heavy metals, and less than about 0.10% sulphated ash. In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises less than about 5000 ppm ethanol and less than about 3000 ppm methanol. In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises a bacterial count of less than about 100 cfu/g, and a mold count of less than about 10 cfu/g. In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises a bacterial count of less than 1 CFU/g, including Escherichia coli and Salmonella species.

[0122] In one embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 1-90%, about 10- 90%, about 20-90%, about 30-90%, about 40-90%, about 40-80%, about 40-70%, about 40- 60%, about 40-50%, about 50-90%, about 50-80%, about 50-70%, about 50-60%, about 60- 90%, about 60-80%, about 60-70%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about 70-90%, about 70- 80%, about 80-90%, about 92-100%, about 93-99%, about 94-98%, about 92-96%, about 93- 96%, or about 93-95% by weight GOS and less than about 10 ppm heavy metals and less than about 0.10% sulphated ash. Standard analytical methods can be used to determine the amount of the various components in the prebiotic or GOS composition, such as but not limited to HPLC, colorimetry (e.g., sodium sulfide colorimetry), or spectrophotometry (e.g., atomic absorption spectrophotometry) .

[0123] In another embodiment, the absorbance of a GOS composition at about A₄₂o can be from about 0.3 AU to about 0.6 AU. In another embodiment, the pH of a GOS composition can be from about 3 to about 7. In one embodiment, the conductance of a GOS composition can be less than about 100 μ8/αη.

8. GOS and digestible saccharides

[0124] In one embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise about 1-5% digestible saccharides, such as lactose, glucose or galactose. In another embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise about 0.001 to about 1% glucose or about 0.01 to about 0.1% glucose. In another embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise about 0.1% galactose to about 2% galactose. In another embodiment, the density of a GOS composition can be about 1200 to about 1500 g/mL.

[0125] In one embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 1-90%, about 1- 80%, about 1-70%, about 1-60%, about 1-50%, about 1-40%, about 40-90%, about 40-80%, about 40-70%, about 40-60%, about 40-50%, about 50-90%, about 50-80%, about 50-70%, about 50-60%, about 60-90%, about 60-80%, about 60-70%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about 80-90%, about 90-96%, about 93-96%, about 93-95%, about 94-98%, about 93-99%, or about 92-100% by weight GOS and no digestible saccharides. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 1-90%, about 1-80%, about 1-70%, about 1-60%, about 1- 50%, about 1-40%, about 40-90%, about 40-80%, about 40-70%, about 40-60%, about 40-50%, about 50-90%, about 50-80%, about 50-70%, about 50-60%, about 60-90%, about 60-80%, about 60-70%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about 80-90%, about 92-100%, about 93-99%, about 94-98%, about 92-96%, about 93-96%, or about 93-95% by weight GOS and less than about 6% (such as about 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1%) digestible saccharides.

[0126] In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 70% GOS and about 20% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 70- 75% GOS and about 5-30% digestible saccharides.

[0127] In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, or 95% by weight GOS and about 1-10% by weight digestible saccharides. In one embodiment these digestible saccharides are byproducts of the GOS synthesis process.

[0128] In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92% GOS. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92% GOS and digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92% GOS and about 8% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92% GOS and no digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92% GOS and no lactose, glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92% GOS and about 1-8% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92% by weight GOS and about 8% by weight digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92% by weight GOS and about 5% by weight digestible saccharides.

[0129] In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% GOS. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% GOS and digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% GOS and about 7% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% GOS and no lactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% GOS and no lactose, glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% GOS and about 1-7% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% by weight GOS and about 1-7% by weight digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% by weight GOS and about 7% by weight digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% by weight GOS and about 5% by weight digestible saccharides.

[0130] In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 94% GOS. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 94% GOS and digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 94% GOS and about 6% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 94% GOS and no lactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 94% GOS and no lactose, glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 94% GOS and about 1-6% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 94% by weight GOS and about 5% by weight digestible saccharides.

[0131] In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS and digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95% by weight GOS and about 5% by weight digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS and no lactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS and no lactose, glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS and about 1-5% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95% by weight GOS and about 1-5% by weight digestible saccharides, such as digestible saccharides.

[0132] In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96% GOS. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96% GOS and digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96% by weight GOS and about 4% by weight digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96% GOS and no lactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96% GOS and no lactose, glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96% GOS and about 1-4% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96% by weight GOS and about 1-4% by weight digestible saccharides.

[0133] In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97% GOS. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97% GOS and digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97% GOS and about 3% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97% GOS and no lactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97% GOS and no lactose, glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97% GOS and about 1-3% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97% by weight GOS and about 1-3% by weight digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97% by weight GOS and about 3% by weight digestible saccharides. [0134] In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 98% GOS. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 98% GOS and digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 98% by weight GOS and about 2% by weight digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 98% GOS and no lactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 98% GOS and no lactose, glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 98% GOS and about 0.1-2% digestible saccharides.

[0135] In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99% GOS. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99% GOS and digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99% GOS and lactose, glucose, galactose or a combination thereof. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99% by weight GOS and about 1% by weight digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99% GOS and no lactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99% GOS and no lactose, glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99% GOS and about 0.1-1% digestible saccharides.

[0136] In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 100% GOS.

[0137] In some embodiments, a GOS composition comprises about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 15%, or about 20% by weight of digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99.9%, 99.5%, 99%, 98.5%, 98%, 97.5%, 97%, 96.5%, 96%, 95.5%, 95%, 94.5%, 94%, 93.5%, 93%, 92.5%, 92%, 91.5%, 91%, 90.5%, 90%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or 1% by weight GOS and one or more digestible saccharides.

[0138] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprising GOS is a pharmaceutical composition. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition consists essentially of GOS. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition consists essentially of GOS and is prepared or administered without any lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition consists essentially of GOS and comprises one or more digestible saccharides such as lactose, galactose, or glucose. These digestible saccharides can be present in trace amounts (e.g., less than 5% by weight of the composition) and can be byproducts of the synthesis of the GOS.

[0139] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS comprises about 70% GOS and about 30% digestible saccharides by weight. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 5.6g of GOS, 1.6g lactose, and 0.8g of other digestible saccharides.

[0140] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprising GOS, and optionally digestible carbohydrates, are used in a method to stimulate lactose fermenting commensal microbes of the human gastrointestinal tract in an adaptation process designed to alleviate lactose intolerance symptoms. In one embodiment, gradual feeding of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS, at increasing doses over a defined time frame, can adapt the lactose fermenting commensal microbes to efficiently metabolize lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals. In one embodiment this adaptation is permanent.

9. GOS and non-digestible saccharides

[0141] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises an effective amount of GOS and optionally another non-digestible saccharide. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition increases Beta-galactosidase activity of species of the Lactobacillus and/or Bifidobacterium species. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises an effective amount of GOS or another non-digestible saccharide to increase the lactase activity of intestinal bacteria (e.g., Lactobacilllus and/or Bifidobacterium) which breaks down the lactose that is not digested by a lactose intolerant human.

[0142] In one embodiment a method of treatment is provided for the use of GOS and optionally another non-digestible saccharide to increase Beta-galactosidase activity of lactobacilli or bifidobacteria. In another embodiment a method of treatment is provided for the use of GOS and optionally another non-digestible saccharide to increase the lactase activity of intestinal bacteria (e.g., lactobacilli or bifidobacteria). In another embodiment a method of treatment is provided for the use of GOS and optionally another non-digestible saccharide to prevent, treat, or reduce a symptom of lactose intolerance in a human. In another embodiment a symptom of lactose intolerance in a human is treated, prevented, or reduced by administration of a composition comprising GOS and optionally another non-digestible saccharide.

[0143] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises between 80-99.9% GOS and no lactose. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises between 80- 99.9% GOS and 20%-0.1% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises between 80-99.9% GOS, between 0.1-20% digestible saccharides, and between 0.1-20% non-digestible saccharides other than GOS.

[0144] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS comprises about 90% GOS and no lactose. For example 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.2g of GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 90% GOS and about 5% digestible saccharides. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 7.2g of GOS and about 0.4g of digestible saccharides. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 90% GOS, about 5% digestible saccharide, and about 2% non-digestible saccharides other than GOS. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.2g of GOS, about 0.4g digestible saccharide, and about 0.16g of other non-digestible saccharides.

[0145] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS comprises about 91% GOS and no lactose. For example 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.28g of GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 91% GOS and about 5% digestible saccharides. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 7.28g of GOS and about 0.4g of digestible saccharides. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 91% GOS, about 5% digestible saccharides, and about 2% non-digestible saccharides other than GOS. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.28g of GOS, about 0.4g of digestible saccharides, and about 0.16g of other non-digestible saccharides.

[0146] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS comprises about 92% GOS and no lactose. For example 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.36g of GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 92% GOS and about 5% digestible saccharides. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 7.36g of GOS and about 0.4g of digestible saccharides. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 92% GOS, about 5% digestible saccharides, and about 2% non-digestible saccharides other than GOS. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.36g of GOS, about 0.4g of digestible saccharides, and about 0.16g of other non-digestible.

[0147] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 93% GOS and no lactose. For example 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.44g of GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 93% GOS and about 5% digestible saccharides. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 7.44g of GOS and about 0.4g of digestible saccharides. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 93% GOS, about 5% digestible saccharides, and about 2% non-digestible saccharides other than GOS. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.44g of GOS, about 0.4g of digestible saccharides, and about 0.16g of other non-digestible. [0148] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 94% GOS and no lactose. For example 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.52g of GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 94% GOS and about 5% digestible saccharides. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 7.52g of GOS and about 0.4g of digestible saccharides. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 94% GOS, about 5% digestible saccharides, and about 1% non-digestible saccharides other than GOS. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.52g of GOS, about 0.4g of digestible saccharides, and about 0.08g of other non-digestible saccharides.

[0149] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 95% GOS and no lactose. For example 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.6g of GOS. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 95% GOS and about 5% digestible saccharides. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 7.6g of GOS and about 0.4g of digestible saccharides.

[0150] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 96% GOS and no lactose. For example 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.68g of GOS. In other embodiments, a prebiotic composition comprising about 96% GOS comprises about 4% digestible saccharides. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 7.68g of GOS and about 0.32g of digestible saccharides.

[0151] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 97% GOS and no lactose. For example 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.76g of GOS. In other embodiments, a prebiotic composition comprising about 97% GOS comprises about 3% digestible saccharides. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 7.76g of GOS and about 0.24g of digestible saccharides.

[0152] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 98% GOS and no lactose. For example 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.84g of GOS. In other embodiments, a prebiotic composition comprising about 96% GOS comprises about 2% digestible saccharides. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 7.84g of GOS and about 0.16g of digestible saccharides.

[0153] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 99% GOS and no lactose. For example 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 7.92g of GOS. In other embodiments, a prebiotic composition comprising about 99% GOS comprises about 1% digestible saccharides. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 7.92g of GOS and about 0.08g of digestible saccharides. [0154] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 100% GOS and no lactose. For example 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise about 8.0g of GOS. In other embodiments, a prebiotic composition comprising about 99.9% GOS comprises less than about 1% digestible saccharides. For example, 8g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 8.0g of GOS and about O.lg of digestible saccharides.

10. GOS effects

[0155] In one embodiment a GOS composition reduces or eliminates one or more symptoms associated with lactose intolerance or with lactose digestive problems, including but not limited to cramps, flatulence, stomach pain, vomiting, bloating, diarrhea, nausea, gastric distention and intestinal pain, in a subject in need thereof. In one embodiment the subject is a patient. In another embodiment the subject is a human. In another embodiment the subject is a non-human animal.

C. FOS

[0156] FOS are chain oligomers or polymers of the sugar fructose that are found in a variety of foods. The sugar units can be linked in a single straight chain or can be a chain with side branches. In many cases small amounts of glucose are also contained in the chain. The length of the fructose chains can vary from source to source. FOS are primarily polyfructans with a degree of polymerization (DP) generally ranging from 2 to 20 (oligofructose) or greater than 20 (inulin). Generally, the D-fructose moieties in FOS are joined by β-(2-1) linkages and the oligomers or polymers are terminated with a D-glucose molecule linked to fructose by an a- (1-2) bond.

[0157] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises a FOS composition, wherein the FOS composition comprises about 1% or more of the composition by weight, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% FOS. In other embodiments, the FOS composition comprises about 0.5% or more of FOS in the FOS composition by weight, such as about 0.5%, 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, or 35% FOS. In another embodiment the prebiotic or FOS composition comprises 0.01-20 g of FOS, such as about 0.01, 0.03, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 g of FOS. In another embodiment the prebiotic or FOS composition comprises FOS and water and one or more digestible saccharides. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises less than about lOppm of a heavy metal (such as arsenic or lead), including but not limited to less than about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or lppm of a heavy metal.

[0158] In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a mixture of FOS and GOS. In one embodiment, about 90 % by weight of the prebiotic component is GOS and about 10 % by weight of the prebiotic component is FOS. In one embodiment, about 50 % by weight of the prebiotic component is GOS and about 50 % by weight of the prebiotic component is FOS. In one embodiment, 1-90 % by weight of the prebiotic component is GOS and 10-60 % by weight of the prebiotic component is FOS. In another embodiment, the prebiotic component of a prebiotic composition is 90-100% by weight GOS.

D. Inulin

[0159] Inulin is an example of a longer chained compound that is considered to be a FOS. The shorter (lower molecular weight) compounds tend to have a sweet taste. The size and complexity of the FOS molecules gives it desirable characteristics. Although the simple sugars fructose and glucose are quickly absorbed into the body by the intestines, FOS for the most part is non-digestible and therefore acts as a fiber in the diet. This is because humans do not have the enzymes to break down the FOS as it travels down the digestive tract. When the FOS reaches the large intestine and the colon, the bacteria that are found there start to break down the FOS. These bacteria have the enzymes needed to break down FOS. Some Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus species have been reported to use FOS. It is believed that foods that promote the growth of bifidobacteria are beneficial for gastrointestinal health.

[0160] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises inulin, wherein the inulin comprises 1% or more of the composition by weight, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% inulin. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises 1-20 g of inulin, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 g of inulin. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises inulin, water, or one or more digestible saccharides. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises less than about lOppm of a heavy metal (such as arsenic or lead), including but not limited to less than about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or lppm of a heavy metal. E. Lactulose

[0161] Lactulose is a disaccharide that is formed from one molecule of fructose and galactose. It can be produced by isomerization of lactose. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises lactulose (4-0- -D-Galactopyranosyl- -D-fructofuranose), wherein lactulose comprises about 1% or more of the composition by weight, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% lactulose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises 1-20 g of lactulose, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 g of lactulose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises lactulose, water, or one or more digestible saccharides. In one embodiment the composition comprises less than about lOppm of a heavy metal (such as arsenic or lead), including but not limited to less than about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or Ippm of a heavy metal.

F. Raffinose

[0162] Raffinose (melitose, melitriose, gossypose, a-D-galactosylsucrose) is a trisaccharide composed of galactose, fructose, and glucose. The enzyme a-galactosidase, which is not found in the human digestive tract, can hydrolyze raffinose. Thus, in humans, raffinose passes through the stomach and upper intestine and is digested by bacteria that do contain a- galactosidase in the lower intestine. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises raffinose, wherein the raffinose comprises 1% or more of the composition by weight, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% raffinose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises 1-20 g of raffinose, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 g of raffinose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises raffinose or one or more digestible saccharides. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises less than about lOppm of a heavy metal (such as arsenic or lead), including but not limited to less than about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or Ippm of a heavy metal. G. Stachyose

[0163] Stachyose is a tetrasaccharide that consists of two a-D-galactose units, one a- D-glucose unit, and one β-D-fructose unit. It is linked as gal(al→6) gal(al→6)glc(al^→2 )fru. Stachyose is not completely digestible by humans. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises stachyose, wherein the stachyose comprises 1% or more of the composition by weight, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% stachyose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises 1-20 g of stachyose, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 g of stachyose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises stachyose, water, or one or more digestible saccharides. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises less than about lOppm of a heavy metal (such as arsenic), including but not limited to less than about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or lppm of a heavy metal.

H. GOS and inulin

[0164] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and inulin. In another embodiment, the ratio of GOS:inulin is about 99: 1, about 95: 1, about 90: 1, about 85: 1, about 80: 1, about 75: 1, about 70: 1, about 65: 1, about 60: 1, about 55: 1, about 50: 1, about 45: 1, about 40: 1, about 35: 1, about 30: 1, about 25: 1, about 20: 1, about 15: 1, about 10: 1, about 9: 1, about 8: 1, about 22:3, about 7: 1, about 6: 1, about 5: 1, about 4: 1, about 3: 1, about 2: 1, or about 1: 1. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS and inulin comprises between 0.4 g to 20 g GOS and inulin. A prebiotic composition comprising GOS and inulin can contain about 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 5, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 6, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, 15, 15.5, 16, 16.5, 17, 17.5, 18, 18.5, 19, 19.5, or 20 g GOS and inulin.

///. Probiotics

A. Introduction

[0165] Probiotics (or probiotic bacteria) typically refer to beneficial live microorganisms, e.g., bacteria, found in the gastrointestinal tract and, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host (or subject in need thereof). Reports indicate that probiotic microbes favorably alter the intestinal microbiota balance, inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria, promote good digestion, modulate immune functions, and increase resistance to both viral and bacterial infections. Probiotics are also reported to produce angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides, a key clinical target for blood pressure control. Bacterial cultures that are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) or known commensal or probiotic microbes could be used to assist in the reduction or elimination of lactose intolerance-like symptoms or improving overall GI health, for example through colonic adaptation, are applicable in the methods and compositions described herein.

B. Bacteria

[0166] Examples of probiotics include, but are not limited to, those that acidify the colon such as those from the genera Lactobacillus or Bifidobacterium, which are thought to maintain a healthy balance of intestinal microbiota by producing organic acids (lactic & acetic acids), hydrogen peroxide, and bacteriocins which are documents to inhibit enteric pathogens. Bacteriocins are small antimicrobial peptides which can kill both closely-related bacteria, or exhibit a broader spectrum of activity (e.g., nisin) which includes most Gram-positive pathogens (e.g., Listeria, Staphylococcus, and Clostridium species).

[0167] Non-exclusive examples of probiotic bacteria that can be used in the methods and compositions described herein include L. acidophilus, a probiotic microbe which is an important member of the microbiota of the GI tract and has been used extensively and successfully as a probiotic cultures in dietary supplements, foods, and dairy products. These beneficial bacteria have been reported to modulate immune function, inhibit carcinogenesis, facilitate metabolism of cholesterol, and assist in digestion. Numerous reports over many Lactobacillus species are reported to promote a healthy microbiota, reduce putrefaction, and reduce endotoxemia. Other Lactobacillus bacteria which can be employed include, but are not limited to, L. crispatus, L. casei, L. rhamnosus, L. reuteri, L. fermentum, L. plantarum, L. sporogenes, and L. bulgaricus. Other probiotic bacteria suitable for the compositions include Bifidobacterium lactis, B. animalis, B. bifidum, B. longum, B. adolescentis, and B. infantis. Yeasts, such as Saccharomyces boulardii, are also suitable as probiotics and may act to restore the intestinal microbiota. Mixtures of one or more species or strains of bacteria can be used. For example, yogurt is a product which already contains bacteria species, such as Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus , which are used for fermentation. Yogurt can be supplemented with prebiotics and additional bacterial species that are considered probiotic cultures.

[0168] Other strains of probiotic bacteria that can be used in the methods and compositions described herein include, for example, Bacillus coagulans GBI-30, 6086; Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BB-12; Bifidobacterium breve Yakult; Bifidobacterium infantis 35624; Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis HN019 (DR10); Bifidobacterium longum BB536; Escherichia coli M-17; Escherichia coli Nissle 1917; Lactobacillus acidophilus DDS-1 ; Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-5; Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM; Lactobacillus casei DN114-001 (Lactobacillus casei Immunitas(s)/Defensis); Lactobacillus casei CRL431 ; Lactobacillus casei F19; Lactobacillus paracasei Stl l (or NCC2461); Lactobacillus johnsonii Lai (Lactobacillus LCI, Lactobacillus johnsonii NCC533); Lactococcus lactis L1A; Lactobacillus plantarum 299V; Lactobacillus reuteri ATTC 55730 (Lactobacillus reuteri SD2112); Lactobacillus rhamnosus ATCC 53013; Lactobacillus rhamnosus LB21 ; Saccharomyces cerevisiae (boulardii) lyo; mixture of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1 and Lactobacillus reuteri RC-14; mixture of Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM and Bifidobacterium lactis BB-12 or BL-04; mixture of Lactobacillus acidophilus CL1285 and Lactobacillus casei; and a mixture of Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 and Lactobacillus rhamnosus R0011.

[0169] In one embodiment, a composition comprises a prebiotic and probiotic. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises or consists essentially of GOS. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition is administered with increasing doses of probiotics during the period of treatment. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is administered with constant doses (dose amounts that do not change) of probiotics during the period of treatment. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is administered with both increasing doses of probiotics for a portion of the treatment and a constant dose of probiotics during another portion of the treatment period.

C. Dose timing and size of probiotics

[0170] In one embodiment, probiotic bacteria, such as L. acidophilus, are given prior to beginning treatment with a prebiotic. In one embodiment, probiotic bacteria, such as L. acidophilus, are given in conjunction with treatment with a prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), for part or all of the treatment with the prebiotic. Thus, in one embodiment, some or all doses of a prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) are accompanied by a dose of bacteria, e.g., live cultured bacteria, e.g., L. acidophilus. In one embodiment, bacteria, e.g., L. acidophilus are given initially with a prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), but then use of the bacteria is discontinued. For example, the initial one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, or more than ten days of treatment with a prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) further comprises doses of bacteria, with the use of bacteria discontinued after that time. In one embodiment, bacteria, (e.g., bacteria in yogurt), or bacteria by themselves, can be given for the first two days of treatment; then the administration of bacteria is discontinued. In another embodiment, probiotic bacteria, either alone or in combination with other substances or treatments are used after the treatment with a prebiotic (comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) is terminated. The bacteria can be taken for any suitable period after the termination of treatment with prebiotic and can be taken daily or at regular or irregular intervals. Doses can be as described below.

[0171] Any suitable amount of probiotic per serving can be used that allows an effective microbiota in the GI. Typically, probiotics are given as live cultured bacteria. The dose can be about O.OOlmg to about lmg, or about 0.5mg to about 5mg, or about lmg to about lOOOmg, or about 2 mg to about 200mg, or about 2 mg to about lOOmg, or about 2 mg to about 50mg, or about 4 mg to about 25mg, or about 5 mg to about 20mg, or about 10 mg to about 15mg, or about 50mg to about 200mg, or about 200mg to about lOOOmg, or about 10, 11, 12, 12.5, 13, 14, or 15mg per serving. In one embodiment, L. acidophilus is used in a dose of about 12.5mg per serving. The probiotic bacteria can also be about 0.5% w/w to about 20% w/w of the final composition. The dose of probiotics can be given in combination with one or more prebiotics. Another common way of specifying the amount of probiotics is as a colony forming unit (cfu). A cfu is an individual cell which is able to clone itself into an entire colony of identical cells. In one embodiment, one or more strains of probiotic bacteria are ingested in an amount of about 1 x 10⁶ to about 1 x 10⁹ cfu's, or about 1 x 10⁶ cfu's to about 1 x 10⁹ cfu's, or about 10 x 10⁶ cfu's to about 0.5 x 10⁹ cfu's, or about 113 x 10⁵ cfu's to about 113 x 10⁶ cfu's, or about 240 x 10⁵ cfu's to about 240 x 10⁶ cfu's, or about 0.3 x 10⁹ cfu's per serving. In another embodiment, one or more strains of probiotic bacteria are administered as part of a dairy product. In one embodiment, a typical serving size for a dairy product such as fluid milk is about 240g. In other embodiments, a serving size is about 245g, or about 240g to about 245g, or about 227 to about 300g. In one embodiment the dairy product is yogurt. Yogurt can have a serving size of about 4 oz, or about 6 oz, or about 8 oz, or about 4 oz to 10 oz, or about half cup, or about 1 cup, or about 113g, or about 170g, or about 227g, or about 245g or about 277g, or about lOOg to about 350g.

[0172] In one embodiment probiotic bacteria are given as live cultured bacteria, e.g., in combination with a prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) and, optionally, other substances. The dose can be about 1 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 2 mg to about 200 mg, or about 2 mg to about 100 mg, or about 2 mg to about 50 mg, or about 4 mg to about 25 mg, or about 5 mg to about 20 mg, or about 10 mg to about 15 mg, or about 10, 11, 12, 12.5, 13, 14, or 15 mg of probiotic bacteria. In one embodiment, L. acidophilus is used in a dose of about 12.5 mg. In one embodiment, as the administration of a prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) dose to a subject increases, the dose of bacteria increases as well. For example, an initial dose of a prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) can be about 0.6 g to 1.0 g, e.g., 0.8 g, given in combination with about 10-15 mg, e.g., about 12.5 mg, of L. acidophilus. The dose of a prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) can be increased incrementally by about 0.6 g to 1.0 g, e.g., 0.8 g, and the accompanying dose of L. acidophilus can be increased by about 10-15 mg, e.g., about 12.5 mg, of L. acidophilus.

IV GOS Formulations

A. Formulations introduction

[0173] In one aspect a prebiotic composition for the treatment of the symptoms of lactose intolerance is provided. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises inulin, FOS, lactulose, GOS, raffinose, stachyose, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises or consists essentially of GOS. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and one or more digestible saccharides. Digestible saccharides are saccharides that are digestible by humans and include, but are not limited to lactose, glucose, and galactose. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and less than 20% of one or more digestible saccharides. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and less than 10% of one or more digestible saccharides. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and less than 5% of one or more digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 5% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 4% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 3% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 2% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 1% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 0.5% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 0.4% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 0.3% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 0.2% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 0.1% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 0.05% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 0.01% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 0.005% lactose. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and essentially no lactose. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition does not contain any lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains GOS and at least one probiotic bacteria strain. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and optionally one or more of lactose, at least one probiotic bacteria strain, or a buffer. Additional ingredients include ingredients to improve handling, preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings and the like.

[0174] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises GOS or a probiotic. In other embodiment, a prebiotic composition is in the form of a powder, tablet, capsule, oral thin or dissolving film, orodispersible tablet, effervescent tablet, oral spray, or liquid. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition can be administered with a dairy product and is in the form of milk or other common dairy product such as a yogurt, shake, smoothie, cheese, and the like.

[0175] In embodiments where a prebiotic composition comprises less than 100% by weight of GOS the remaining ingredients can be any suitable ingredients intended for the consumption of the subject in need thereof, e.g., human, including, but not limited to, other prebiotics (e.g., FOS), a buffer, one or more digestible saccharides, ingredients intended to inhibit clumping and increase pourability, such as silicone dioxide and microcrystalline cellulose, or similar ingredients as are well-known in the art. Remaining ingredients can also include ingredients to improve handling, preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings, and the like.

B. Buffer components

[0176] One or more buffers, optionally with a calcium counterion, can also be administered in methods and compositions described herein. Any buffer suitable for consumption by the subject being treated, e.g., human, are useful for the compositions herein. The buffer neutralizes stomach acidity which can, e.g., allow live bacteria to reach the gut. Buffers include citrates, phosphates, and the like. One embodiment utilizes a buffer with a calcium counterion, such as Calcium Phosphate Tribasic. The calcium can serve to restore the calcium that many lactose intolerant subjects are missing in their diet. A recent study demonstrated the ability of calcium phosphate to protect Lactobacillus acidophilus from bile. Calcium phosphate can help neutralize stomach acidity.

[0177] In one embodiment, a buffer such as calcium phosphate is given prior to beginning treatment with a prebiotic composition (such as a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), optionally in conjunction with administration of bacteria. In one embodiment, a buffer such as calcium phosphate is given in conjunction with treatment with a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), for part or all of the treatment with lactose. Thus, in one embodiment, some or all doses of a prebiotic composition are accompanied by a dose of a buffer such as calcium phosphate. In one embodiment, a buffer such as calcium phosphate is given initially with a prebiotic composition (such as a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), but then its use is discontinued. For example, the initial one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, or more than ten days of treatment with a prebiotic composition can include doses of a buffer such as calcium phosphate, with the use of the buffer discontinued after that time. In one embodiment, a buffer such as calcium phosphate can be given for the first two days of treatment, and then the administration of buffer is discontinued. In one embodiment, a buffer such as calcium phosphate, either alone or in combination with other substances or treatments is used after the treatment with a prebiotic composition is terminated. A buffer such as calcium phosphate can be taken for any suitable period after the termination of treatment with lactose, and can be taken daily or at regular or irregular intervals. Doses can be as described below.

[0178] Numerous buffers suitable for human consumption are known in the art, and any suitable buffer can be used in the methods and compositions described herein. Calcium triphosphate is an exemplary buffer, and its counterion supplies a nutrient that is often lacking in lactose-intolerant subjects, i.e. calcium. In one embodiment a buffer can be used in a dose from about 2 mg to about 2000 mg, or about 4 mg to about 400 mg, or about 4 mg to about 200 mg, or about 4 mg to about 100 mg, or about 8 mg to about 50 mg, or about 10 mg to about 40 mg, or about 20 mg to about 30 mg, or about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 mg. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition further comprises an amount of a buffer from 1-50 mg, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, or 50 mg. In one embodiment, buffer is used in a dose of about 25 mg. In one embodiment, calcium phosphate is used in a dose of about 25 mg. The dose can be given in combination with a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS). In one embodiment, as a prebiotic composition dose increases, the dose of buffer increases as well. For example, an initial dose of a prebiotic composition can be about 0.6 g to 1.0 g, e.g., 0.8 g, given in combination with about 20-30 mg, e.g., about 25 mg, of buffer, e.g., calcium phosphate. The dose of a prebiotic composition can be increased incrementally by about 0.6 g to 1.0 g, e.g., 0.8 g, and the accompanying dose of buffer, e.g., calcium phosphate, can be increased by about 20- 30 mg, e.g., about 25 mg, of buffer, e.g., calcium phosphate. C Compositions comprising GOS and at least one probiotic bacteria strain

[0179] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and at least one probiotic bacteria strain. The GOS can comprise more than 1% of the weight of the composition while the at least one probiotic bacteria strain will typically comprise less than about 10%, 5%, 4%, 3%, or 2% by weight of the compositions (herein all percentages are weight percent unless otherwise indicated). For example, the GOS can be present at about 1-99.75% by weight and the at least one probiotic bacteria strain at about 0.25-2 % by weight, or the GOS can be present at about 89-96% by weight and the bacteria at about 1.2-3.7% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 92% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 92% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 93% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 94% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 95% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 96% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 97% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 98% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacteriium lactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 98.5% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. If the at least one probiotic bacteria strain and GOS do not make up 100% by weight of the prebiotic composition, the remaining ingredients can be any suitable ingredients intended for consumption by the subject in need thereof, e.g., human, including, but not limited to, other prebiotics (e.g., FOS), one or more buffers, digestible saccharides ingredients intended to inhibit clumping and increase pourability, such as silicone dioxide and microcrystalline cellulose, or similar ingredients as are well-known in the art. Remaining ingredients can also include ingredients to improve handling, preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings and the like. D. Compositions comprising GOS and a buffer

[0180] In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and a buffer (e.g., calcium phosphate tribasic). For example, GOS can be present at about 1-100% by weight and the buffer at about 0.50-4% by weight, or GOS can be present at about 1-96% by weight and the buffer at about 1 to about 3.75% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 1% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 5% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 10% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 15% by weight and buffer is present at about 15% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 20% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 25% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 30% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 35% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 40% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 50% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 60% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 70% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 90% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 92% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 93% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 94% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 95% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 96% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 97% by weight and buffer is present at about 2% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 98% by weight and buffer is present at about 1% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 99% by weight and buffer is present at about 1 % by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 100% by weight and buffer is present at less than about 1% by weight. If the buffer and GOS do not make up 100% by weight of the composition, the remaining ingredients can be any suitable ingredients intended for consumption by the subject (e.g., a human) including, but not limited to, probiotics (e.g., beneficial bacteria) or other prebiotics (e.g., FOS), but also including ingredients intended to inhibit clumping and increase pourability, such as silicone dioxide and microcrystalline cellulose, or similar ingredients as are well-known in the art. Remaining ingredients can also include ingredients to improve handling, preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings and the like.

E. Compositions comprising a digestible saccharide, a probiotic bacteria, and GOS

[0181] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a digestible saccharide, a probiotic bacteria (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium), and GOS. In one embodiment, lactose can be present at about 1-20% by weight, bacteria at about 0.25-2.10% by weight, and GOS at about 1-98.75% by weight. In another embodiment lactose can be present at about 5-20% by weight, bacteria at about 0.91-1.95% by weight, and GOS at about 1 to about 96% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 1% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 50% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 60% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 70% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, bacteria at about 1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 90% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, bacteria at about 1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 92% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, bacteria at about 1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 93% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, bacteria at about 1% by weight, and GOS are present at about 94% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 4.5% by weight, bacteria at about 1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 94% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 4.5% by weight, bacteria at about 0.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 95% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 3.5% by weight, bacteria at about 0.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 96% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 2.5% by weight, bacteria at about 0.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 97% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 1.5% by weight, bacteria at about 0.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 98% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 0.5% by weight, bacteria at about 0.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 99% by weight. If the bacteria, GOS and lactose do not make up 100% of the composition, the remaining ingredients can be any suitable ingredients intended for consumption by the subject, e.g., a human, including, but not limited to a buffer, digestible saccharides (e.g., lactose, glucose, or galactose), ingredients intended to inhibit clumping and increase pourability, such as silicone dioxide and microcrystalline cellulose, or similar ingredients as are well-known in the art. Remaining ingredients can also include ingredients to improve handling, preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings and the like.

F. Compositions comprising GOS, a probiotic bacteria, and buffer

[0182] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises GOS, a probiotic bacteria strain, and buffer. In one embodiment, GOS can be present at about 1-100% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 0.25-2% by weight, and the buffer at about 0.50-4% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS can be present at about 1-95% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 0.91-1.95% by weight, and the buffer at about 1.2 - 3.75% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 1% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 5% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 10% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 15% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 20% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 25% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 30% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 35% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 40% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 50% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 60% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 70% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 90% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 92% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 93% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 94% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 95% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 96% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 2% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 97% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 1.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 99% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 0.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 0.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 100% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at less than about 0.5% by weight, and buffer is present at less than about 0.5% by weight. If the probiotic bacteria strain, buffer, and GOS do not make up 100% of the composition, the remaining ingredients can be any suitable ingredients intended for the consumption of a subject (e.g., human) including, but not limited to, other prebiotics (e.g., FOS), digestible saccharides (e.g., lactose, glucose or galactose), ingredients intended to inhibit clumping and increase pourability, such as silicone dioxide and microcrystalline cellulose, or similar ingredients as are well-known in the art. Remaining ingredients can also include ingredients to improve handling, preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings and the like.

G. Compositions comprising a digestible saccharide, GOS, and a buffer

[0183] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a digestible saccharide, GOS, and a buffer. For example, lactose can be present at about 1-20% by weight, GOS at about 1 -100% by weight, and the buffer at about 0.50-4% by weight, or the lactose can be present at about 5-20% by weight, GOS at about 1 - 96% by weight, and the buffer at about 1.2 - 3.75% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 1% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, GOS at about 1% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 10% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 15% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 20% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 25% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 30% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 35% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 40% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 50% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 60% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 70% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, GOS at about 90% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, GOS at about 92% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 4% by weight, GOS at about 93% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 3% by weight, GOS at about 94% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 2% by weight, GOS at about 95% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, lactose is present at about 1% by weight, GOS at about 96% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. If GOS, buffer and lactose do not make up 100% of the composition by weight, the remaining ingredients can be any suitable ingredients intended for consumption by a subject (e.g., human) including, but not limited to, bacteria, ingredients intended to inhibit clumping and increase pourability, such as silicone dioxide and microcrystalline cellulose, or similar ingredients as are well-known in the art. Remaining ingredients can also include ingredients to improve handling, preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings and the like.

H. Compositions comprising a digestible saccharide, bacteria, GOS, and a buffer

[0184] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a digestible saccharide, bacteria, GOS, and buffer. For example, lactose can be present at about 1-20% by weight, bacteria at about 0.25 - 2.10% by weight, GOS at about 1 -100% by weight, and the buffer at about 0.50-4% by weight, or the lactose can be present at about 5-20% by weight, bacteria at about 0.91 - 1.95% by weight, GOS at about 70 -95% by weight, and the buffer at about 1.2 - 3.75% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 1% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 10% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 15% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 20% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 25% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 30% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 35% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 40% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 50% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 60% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 70% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 90% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 3% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 92% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 2% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 93% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 1% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 94% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 0.5% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 95% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. If the bacteria, GOS, buffer and lactose do not make up 100% of the composition by weight, the remaining ingredients can be any suitable ingredients intended for consumption by a subject, e.g., human, including, but not limited to, ingredients intended to inhibit clumping and increase pourability, such as silicone dioxide and microcrystalline cellulose, or similar ingredients as are well-known in the art. Remaining ingredients can also include ingredients to improve handling, preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings and the like.

/. Additional ingredients

[0185] Additional ingredients include ingredients to improve handling, preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings and the like. For example, in one embodiment, a prebiotic composition in powdered form can include flavorings such that when mixed in a liquid (e.g., water), the powder can flavor the liquid with various flavors such as grape, strawberry, lime, lemon, chocolate, and the like. In one embodiment, the compositions include microcrystalline cellulose or silicone dioxide. Preservatives can include, for example, benzoic acid, alcohols, for example, ethyl alcohol, and hydroxybenzoates. Antioxidants can include, for example, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytolulene (BHT), tocopherols (e.g., Vitamin E), and ascorbic acid (Vitamin C).

V. Dosage forms

A. General

[0186] Compositions described herein include any suitable form, including liquid or powder. Powdered compositions can be as pure powder, or can be in the form of capsules, tablets, or the like. Powder can be packaged in bulk (e.g., in a container containing sufficient prebiotic or other substances for a subject to follow for an entire course of treatment with increasing doses of prebiotic, or a portion of a course of treatment), or as individual packets (e.g., packets containing a single dose of prebiotic plus other components, or packets containing the dose of prebiotic and other components needed for a particular day of a prebiotic treatment regimen). If packaged in bulk, the powder can be in any suitable container, such as a packet, sachet, canister, ampoule, ramekin, or bottle. The container can also include one or more scoops or similar serving devices of a size or sizes appropriate to measure and serve one or more doses of prebiotic and, optionally, other ingredients included in the powder. Liquid compositions contain prebiotic and, optionally, other ingredients, in a suitable liquid, e.g., water or buffer. Liquid compositions can be provided in bulk (e.g., in a container containing sufficient prebiotic or other substances for one subject in need thereof to follow an entire course of treatment with increasing doses of prebiotic, or a portion of a course of treatment), or as individual containers, such as cans, bottles, soft packs, and the like (e.g., containers containing a single dose of prebiotic plus other components in suitable liquid, or containers containing the dose of prebiotic and other components needed for a particular day of a prebiotic treatment regimen). The container can also include one or more measuring cups or similar serving devices of a size or sizes appropriate to measure and serve one or more doses of prebiotic and, optionally, other ingredients included in the liquid.

[0187] In one embodiment, compositions described herein comprise one or more excipients. In one embodiment, the one or more excipients comprise one or more antiadherents, one or more binders, one or more coatings, one or more disintegrants, one or more fillers, one or more flavours, one or more colours, one or more lubricants, one or more glidants, one or more sorbents, one or more preservatives, one or more sweeteners, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the antiadherent is magnesium stearate. In one embodiment, the one or more binders are cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, xylitol, sorbitol, maltitiol, geleatin, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyethylene glycol, methyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the one or more coatings are a hydroxypropyl methylcellulose film, shellac, corn protein zein, gelatin, methyl acrylate- methacrylic acid copolymers, cellulose acetate succinate, hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose phthalate, hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose acetate succinate, polyvinyl acetate phthalate, methyl methacrylate-methacrylic acid copolymers, sodium alginate, stearic acid, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the one or more disintegrants are crosslinked polyvinylpyrrolidone (crospovidone), crosslinked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (croscarmellose sodium), sodium starch glycolate, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the one or more fillers are calcium carbonate, magnesium stearate, dibasic calcium phosphate, cellulose, vegetable oil, vegetable fat, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the one or more flavours are mint, cherry, anise, peach, apricot, liquorice, raspberry, vanilla, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the one or more lubricants are talc, silica, vegetable stearin, magnesium stearate, stearic acid, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the one or more glidants are fumed silica, talc, magnesium carbonate, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the one or more sorbents are fatty acids, waxes, shellac, plastics, plant fibers, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the one or more preservatives are vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin C, retinyl palmitate, selenium, cysteine, methionine, citric acid, sodium citrate, methyl paraben, propyl paraben, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the one or more sweeteners are stevia, sparame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium, saccharin or a combination thereof. B. Oral dosage forms and components

[0188] In one aspect provided herein are methods and compositions formulated for oral delivery to a subject in need thereof. In one embodiment a composition is formulated to deliver a composition comprising a prebiotic to a subject in need thereof. In another embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition is formulated to deliver a composition comprising a prebiotic to a subject in need thereof. In another embodiment a composition is formulated to deliver a composition comprising prebiotic and a probiotic to a subject in need thereof.

1. Forms

[0189] In one embodiment, a composition is administered in solid, semi-solid, micro- emulsion, gel, or liquid form. Examples of such dosage forms include tablet forms disclosed in US Patent Nos. 3048526, 3108046, 4786505, 4919939, and 4950484; gel forms disclosed in US Patent Nos. 4904479, 6482435, 6572871, and 5013726; capsule forms disclosed in US Patent Nos. 4800083, 4532126, 4935243, and 6258380; or liquid forms disclosed in US patent Nos. 4625494, 4478822, and 5610184; each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0190] Forms of the compositions that can be used orally include tablets, push-fit capsules made of gelatin, as well as soft, sealed capsules made of gelatin and a plasticizer, such as glycerol or sorbitol. Tablets can be made by compression or molding, optionally with one or more accessory ingredients. Compressed tablets can be prepared by compressing in a suitable machine the active ingredient in a free- flowing form such as a powder or granules, optionally mixed with binders (e.g., povidone, gelatin, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose), inert diluents, preservative, antioxidant, disintegrant (e.g., sodium starch glycolate, cross-linked povidone, cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose) or lubricating, surface active or dispersing agents. Molded tablets can be made by molding in a suitable machine a mixture of the powdered compound moistened with an inert liquid diluent. The tablets can optionally be coated or scored and can be formulated so as to provide slow or controlled release of the active ingredient therein. Tablets can optionally be provided with an enteric coating, to provide release in parts of the gut (e.g., colon, lower intestine) other than the stomach. All formulations for oral administration can be in dosages suitable for such administration. The push-fit capsules can contain the active ingredients in admixture with filler such as lactose, binders such as starches, and/or lubricants such as talc or magnesium stearate and, optionally, stabilizers. In soft capsules, the active compounds (prebiotics or probiotics) can be dissolved or suspended in suitable liquids, such as fatty oils, liquid paraffin, or liquid polyethylene glycols. In addition, stabilizers can be added. Dragee cores are provided with suitable coatings. For this purpose, concentrated sugar solutions can be used, which can optionally contain gum arabic, talc, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, carbopol gel, polyethylene glycol, or titanium dioxide, lacquer solutions, and suitable organic solvents or solvent mixtures. Dyestuffs or pigments can be added to the tablets or Dragee coatings for identification or to characterize different combinations of active compound doses.

[0191] Formulations for oral use can also be presented as hard gelatin capsules wherein the active ingredient is mixed with an inert solid diluent, for example, calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate or kaolin, or as soft gelatin capsules wherein the active ingredient is mixed with water soluble carrier such as polyethylene glycol or an oil medium, for example peanut oil, liquid paraffin, or olive oil.

[0192] Oral liquid preparations can be in the form of, for example, aqueous or oily suspensions, solutions, emulsions syrups or elixirs, or can be presented as a dry product for reconstitution with water or other suitable vehicle before use. Such liquid preparations can contain conventional additives, such as suspending agents, for example sorbitol, methyl cellulose, glucose syrup, gelatin, hydroxyethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, aluminum stearate gel or hydrogenated edible fats, emulsifying agents, for example lecithin, sorbitan monooleate, acacia; nonaqueous vehicles (which can include edible oils), for example almond oil, oily esters such as glycerine, propylene glycol, or ethyl alcohol; preservatives, for example methyl or propyl p-hydoxybenzoate or sorbic acid, and, if desired, conventional flavoring or coloring agents.

[0193] In one embodiment, a provided prebiotic composition includes a softgel formulation. A softgel can contain a gelatin based shell that surrounds a liquid fill. The shell can be made of gelatin, plasticiser (e.g., glycerin and/or sorbitol), modifier, water, color, antioxidant, or flavor. The shell can be made with starch or carrageenan. The outer layer can be enteric coated. In one embodiment, a softgel formulation can include a water or oil soluble fill solution, or suspension of a composition, for example, a prebiotic composition, covered by a layer of gelatin.

[0194] An enteric coating can control the location of where a prebiotic composition is absorbed in the digestive system. For example, an enteric coating can be designed such that a prebiotic composition does not dissolve in the stomach but rather travels to the small intestine, where it dissolves. An enteric coating can be stable at low pH (such as in the stomach) and can dissolve at higher pH (for example, in the small intestine). Material that can be used in enteric coatings includes, for example, alginic acid, cellulose acetate phthalate, plastics, waxes, shellac, and fatty acids (e.g., stearic acid, palmitic acid). Enteric coatings are described, for example, in US Patent Nos. 5,225,202, 5,733,575, 6139875, 6420473, 6455052, and 6569457, all of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. The enteric coating can be an aqueous enteric coating. Examples of polymers that can be used in enteric coatings include, for example, shellac (trade name EmCoat 120 N, Marcoat 125); cellulose acetate phthalate (trade name aquacoat CPD®, Sepifilm™ LP, Klucel®, Aquacoat® ECD, and Metolose®); polyvinylacetate phthalate (trade name Sureteric®); and methacrylic acid (trade name Eudragit®).

[0195] In one embodiment, an enteric coated prebiotic composition is administered to a subject. In another embodiment, an enteric coated probiotic composition is administered to a subject. In another embodiment, an enteric coated probiotic and prebiotic composition is administered to a subject. In one embodiment, probiotic bacteria can be administered to a subject using an enteric coating. The stomach has an acidic environment that can kill probiotics. An enteric coating can protect probiotics as they pass through the stomach and small intestine.

[0196] Enteric coatings can be used to (1) prevent the gastric juice from reacting with or destroying the active substance, (2) prevent dilution of the active substance before it reaches the intestine, (3) ensure that the active substance is not released until after the preparation has passed the stomach, and (4) prevent live bacteria contained in the preparation from being killed because of the low pH- value in the stomach.

[0197] Enteric coatings can also be used for avoiding irritation of or damage to the mucous membrane of the stomach caused by substances contained in the oral preparation, and for counteracting or preventing formation or release of substances having an unpleasant odor or taste in the stomach. Finally, such coatings can be used for preventing nausea or vomiting on intake of oral preparations.

[0198] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition is provided as a tablet, capsule, or caplet with an enteric coating. In one embodiment the enteric coating is designed to hold the tablet, capsule, or caplet together when in the stomach. The enteric coating is designed to hold together in acid conditions of the stomach and break down in non-acid conditions and therefore release the drug in the intestines.

[0199] Softgel delivery systems can also incorporate phospholipids or polymers or natural gums to entrap a composition, for example, a prebiotic composition, in the gelatin layer with an outer coating to give desired delayed/control release effects, such as an enteric coating.

[0200] Formulations of softgel fills can be at pH 2.5-7.5.

[0201] A softgel formulation can be sealed tightly in an automatic manner. A softgel formulation can easily be swallowed, allow for product identification using colors and several shapes, allow uniformity, precision and accuracy between dosages, be safe against adulteration, provide good availability and rapid absorption, and offer protection against contamination, light and oxidation. Furthermore, softgel formulations can avoid unpleasant flavors due to content encapsulation.

[0202] A composition comprising a softgel formulation can be in any of number of different sizes, including, for example, round, oblong, oval, tube, droplet, or suppositories.

[0203] In one embodiment a composition is provided in a dosage form which comprises an effective amount of prebiotic and one or more release controlling excipients as described herein. Suitable modified release dosage vehicles include, but are not limited to, hydrophilic or hydrophobic matrix devices, water-soluble separating layer coatings, enteric coatings, osmotic devices, multi-particulate devices, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment the dosage form is a tablet, caplet, capsule or lollipop. In another embodiment, the dosage form is a liquid, oral suspension, oral solution, or oral syrup. In yet another embodiment, the dosage form is a gel capsule, soft gelatin capsule, or hard gelatin capsule.

[0204] In one embodiment, the dosage form is a gelatin capsule having a size indicated in Table 7.

TABLE 7: GEL CAP SIZES ALLOWABLE FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION

Note: sizes and volumes are approximate. [0205] In another embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic is provided in effervescent dosage forms. The compositions can also comprise non-release controlling excipients.

[0206] In another embodiment, a composition comprising a prebiotic is provided in a dosage form that has at least one component that can facilitate release of the prebiotic. In a further embodiment the dosage form can be capable of giving a discontinuous release of the compound in the form of at least two consecutive pulses separated in time from 0.1 up to 24 hours. The compositions can comprise one or more release controlling and non-release controlling excipients, such as those excipients suitable for a disruptable semi-permeable membrane and as swellable substances.

[0207] In another embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic is provided in an enteric coated dosage form. The composition can also comprise non-release controlling excipients.

[0208] In another embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic is provided in a dosage form for oral administration to a subject in need thereof, which comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients or carriers, enclosed in an intermediate reactive layer comprising a gastric juice-resistant polymeric layered material partially neutralized with alkali and having cation exchange capacity and a gastric juice-resistant outer layer.

[0209] In one embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic is provided in the form of enteric-coated granules, for oral administration. The compositions can further comprise cellulose, disodium hydrogen phosphate, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hypromellose, lactose, mannitol, and sodium lauryl sulfate.

[0210] In another embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic is provided in the form of enteric-coated pellets, for oral administration. The compositions can further comprise glyceryl monostearate 40-50, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hypromellose, magnesium stearate, methacrylic acid copolymer type C, polysorbate 80, sugar spheres, talc, and triethyl citrate.

[0211] In one embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic is provided in the form of enteric-coated granules, for oral administration. The compositions can further comprise carnauba wax, crospovidone, diacetylated monoglycerides, ethylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hypromellose phthalate, magnesium stearate, mannitol, sodium hydroxide, sodium stearyl fumarate, talc, titanium dioxide, and yellow ferric oxide.

[0212] In another embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic can further comprise calcium stearate, crospovidone, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, iron oxide, mannitol, methacrylic acid copolymer, polysorbate 80, povidone, propylene glycol, sodium carbonate, sodium lauryl sulfate, titanium dioxide, and triethyl citrate.

[0213] The compositions provided herein can be in unit-dosage forms or multiple- dosage forms. Unit-dosage forms, as used herein, refer to physically discrete units suitable for administration to human or non-human animal subject in need thereof and packaged individually. Each unit-dose can contain a predetermined quantity of an active ingredient(s) sufficient to produce the desired therapeutic effect, in association with other pharmaceutical carriers or excipients. Examples of unit-dosage forms include, but are not limited to, ampoules, syringes, and individually packaged tablets and capsules. Unit-dosage forms can be administered in fractions or multiples thereof. A multiple-dosage form is a plurality of identical unit-dosage forms packaged in a single container, which can be administered in segregated unit-dosage form. Examples of multiple-dosage forms include, but are not limited to, vials, bottles of tablets or capsules, or bottles of pints or gallons. In another embodiment the multiple dosage forms comprise different pharmaceutically active agents. For example a multiple dosage form can be provided which comprises a first dosage element comprising a composition comprising a prebiotic and a second dosage element comprising lactose or a probiotic, which can be in a modified release form.

[0214] In this example a pair of dosage elements can make a single unit dosage. In one embodiment a kit is provided comprising multiple unit dosages, wherein each unit comprises a first dosage element comprising a composition comprising a prebiotic and a second dosage element comprising probiotic, lactose or both, which can be in a modified release form. In another embodiment the kit further comprises a set of instructions.

[0215] In one embodiment compositions can be formulated in various dosage forms for oral administration. The compositions can also be formulated as a modified release dosage form, including immediate-, delayed-, extended-, prolonged-, sustained-, pulsatile-, controlled-, extended, accelerated-, fast-, targeted-, programmed-release, and gastric retention dosage forms. These dosage forms can be prepared according to known methods and techniques (see, Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, supra; Modified-Release Drug Deliver Technology, Rathbone et al., Eds., Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Science, Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York, N.Y., 2002; Vol. 126, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety).

[0216] In one embodiment, the compositions are in one or more dosage forms. For example, a composition can be administered in a solid or liquid form. Examples of solid dosage forms include but are not limited to discrete units in capsules or tablets, as a powder or granule, or present in a tablet conventionally formed by compression molding. Such compressed tablets can be prepared by compressing in a suitable machine the three or more agents and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The molded tablets can be optionally coated or scored, having indicia inscribed thereon and can be so formulated as to cause immediate, substantially immediate, slow, controlled or extended release of a composition comprising a prebiotic. Furthermore, dosage forms as disclosed herein can comprise acceptable carriers or salts known in the art, such as those described in the Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients, American Pharmaceutical Association (1986), incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

[0217] In one embodiment, an effective amount of a composition comprising a prebiotic is mixed with a pharmaceutical excipient to form a solid preformulation composition comprising a homogeneous mixture of compounds described herein. When referring to these compositions as "homogeneous," it is meant that the agents are dispersed evenly throughout the composition so that the composition can be subdivided into unit dosage forms such as tablets, caplets, or capsules. This solid preformulation composition can then be subdivided into unit dosage forms of the type described above comprising from, for example, about 1 g to about 20 mg of a prebiotic composition. A prebiotic composition can be formulated, in the case of caplets, capsules or tablets, to be swallowed whole, for example with water. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition does not comprise excipients and/or preservatives.

[0218] The compositions described herein can be in liquid form. The liquid formulations can comprise, for example, an agent in water-in-solution and/or suspension form; and a vehicle comprising polyethoxylated castor oil, alcohol, and/or a polyoxyethylated sorbitan mono-oleate with or without flavoring. Each dosage form comprises an effective amount of an active agent and can optionally comprise pharmaceutically inert agents, such as conventional excipients, vehicles, fillers, binders, disintegrants, pH adjusting substances, buffer, solvents, solubilizing agents, sweeteners, coloring agents, and any other inactive agents that can be included in pharmaceutical dosage forms for oral administration. Examples of such vehicles and additives can be found in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 17th edition (1985).

2. Manufacturing

[0219] The dosage forms described herein can be manufactured using processes that are well known to those of skill in the art. For example, for the manufacture of tablets, an effective amount of a prebiotic can be dispersed uniformly in one or more excipients, for example, using high shear granulation, low shear granulation, fluid bed granulation, or by blending for direct compression. Excipients include diluents, binders, disintegrants, dispersants, lubricants, glidants, stabilizers, surfactants and colorants. Diluents, also termed "fillers," can be used to increase the bulk of a tablet so that a practical size is provided for compression. Non- limiting examples of diluents include lactose, cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, mannitol, dry starch, hydrolyzed starches, powdered sugar, talc, sodium chloride, silicon dioxide, titanium oxide, dicalcium phosphate dihydrate, calcium sulfate, calcium carbonate, alumina and kaolin. Binders can impart cohesive qualities to a tablet formulation and can be used to help a tablet remain intact after compression. Non-limiting examples of suitable binders include starch (including corn starch and pregelatinized starch), gelatin, sugars (e.g., glucose, dextrose, sucrose, lactose and sorbitol), celluloses, polyethylene glycol, waxes, natural and synthetic gums, e.g., acacia, tragacanth, sodium alginate, and synthetic polymers such as polymethacrylates and polyvinylpyrrolidone. Lubricants can also facilitate tablet manufacture; non-limiting examples thereof include magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, stearic acid, glyceryl behenate, and polyethylene glycol. Disintegrants can facilitate tablet disintegration after administration, and non-limiting examples thereof include starches, alginic acid, crosslinked polymers such as, e.g., crosslinked polyvinylpyrrolidone, croscarmellose sodium, potassium or sodium starch glycolate, clays, celluloses, starches, gums and the like. Non-limiting examples of suitable glidants include silicon dioxide, talc, and the like. Stabilizers can inhibit or retard drug decomposition reactions, including oxidative reactions. Surfactants can also include and can be anionic, cationic, amphoteric or nonionic. If desired, the tablets can also comprise nontoxic auxiliary substances such as pH buffering agents, preservatives, e.g., antioxidants, wetting or emulsifying agents, solubilizing agents, coating agents, flavoring agents, and the like. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition does not comprise excipients and/or preservatives.

[0220] In one embodiment, a softgel formulation is made with a gelatin mass for the outer shell, and a composition including one or more substances, for example prebiotics and/or probiotics, for the capsule fill can be prepared. To make the gelatin mass, gelatin powder can be mixed with water and glycerin, heated, and stirred under vacuum. Additives, for example, flavors or colors, can be added to molten gelatin using a turbine mixer and transferred to mobile vessels. The gelatin mass can be kept in a steam-jacketed storage vessel at a constant temperature.

[0221] The encapsulation process can begin when the molten gel is pumped to a machine and two thin ribbons of gel are formed on either side of machine. These ribbons can then pass over a series of rollers and over a set of die that determine the size and shapes of capsules. A fill composition, for example a prebiotic and/or probiotic fill composition, can be fed to a positive displacement pump, which can dose the fill and inject it between two gelatin ribbons prior to sealing them together through the application of heat and pressure. To remove excess water, the capsules can pass through a conveyer into tumble dryers where a portion of the water can be removed. The capsules can then be placed on, for example, trays, which can be stacked and transferred into drying rooms. In the drying rooms, dry air can be forced over capsules to remove any excess moisture.

3. Release formulations

[0222] Immediate-release formulations of an effective amount of a prebiotic composition can comprise one or more combinations of excipients that allow for a rapid release of a pharmaceutically active agent (such as from 1 minute to 1 hour after administration). In one embodiment an excipient can be microcrystalline cellulose, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, sodium starch glycolate, corn starch, colloidal silica, Sodium Laurel Sulphate, Magnesium Stearate, Prosolve SMCC (HD90), croscarmellose Sodium, Crospovidone NF, Avicel PH200, and combinations of such excipients. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition does not comprise excipients and/or preservatives.

[0223] "Controlled-release" formulations (also referred to as sustained release (SR), extended-release (ER, XR, or XL), time-release or timed-release, controlled-release (CR), or continuous-release) refer to the release of a prebiotic composition from a dosage form at a particular desired point in time after the dosage form is administered to a subject. Controlled- release formulations can include one or more excipients, including but not limited to microcrystalline cellulose, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, sodium starch glycolate, corn starch, colloidal silica, Sodium Laurel Sulphate, Magnesium Stearate, Prosolve SMCC (HD90), croscarmellose Sodium, Crospovidone NF, or Avicel PH200. Generally, controlled-release includes sustained but otherwise complete release. A sudden and total release in the large intestine at a desired and appointed time or a release in the intestines such as through the use of an enteric coating are both considered controlled-release. Controlled-release can occur at a predetermined time or in a predetermined place within the digestive tract. It is not meant to include a passive, uncontrolled process as in swallowing a normal tablet. Examples include, but are not limited to, those described in U.S. Patent Nos. 3,845,770; 3,916,899; 3,536,809; 3,598,123; 4,008,719; 5,674,533; 5,059,595; 5,591,767; 5,120,548; 5,073,543; 5,639,476; 5,354,556; 5,733,556; 5,871,776; 5,902,632; and 5,837,284 each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition does not comprise excipients and/or preservatives.

[0224] In one embodiment a controlled release dosage form begins its release and continues that release over an extended period of time. Release can occur beginning almost immediately or can be sustained. Release can be constant, can increase or decrease over time, can be pulsed, can be continuous or intermittent, and the like. Generally, however, the release of at least one pharmaceutically active agent from a controlled-release dosage form will exceed the amount of time of release of the drug taken as a normal, passive release tablet. Thus, for example, while all of at least one pharmaceutically active agent of an uncoated aspirin tablet should be released within, for example, four hours, a controlled-release dosage form could release a smaller amount of aspirin over a period of six hours, 12 hours, or even longer. Controlled-release in accordance with the compositions and methods described herein generally means that the release occurs for a period of six hours or more, such as 12 hours or more.

[0225] In another embodiment a controlled release dosage refers to the release of an agent, from a composition or dosage form in which the agent is released according to a desired profile over an extended period of time. In one embodiment, controlled-release results in dissolution of an agent within 20-720 minutes after entering the stomach. In another embodiment, controlled-release occurs when there is dissolution of an agent within 20-720 minutes after being swallowed. In another embodiment, controlled-release occurs when there is dissolution of an agent within 20-720 minutes after entering the intestine. In another embodiment, controlled-release results in substantially complete dissolution after at least 1 hour following administration. In another embodiment, controlled-release results in substantially complete dissolution after at least 1 hour following oral administration. For example, controlled- release compositions allow delivery of an agent to a subject in need thereof over an extended period of time according to a predetermined profile. Such release rates can provide therapeutically effective levels of agent for an extended period of time and thereby provide a longer period of pharmacologic or diagnostic response as compared with conventional rapid release dosage forms. Such longer periods of response provide for many inherent benefits that are not achieved with immediate-release dosages. When used in connection with the dissolution profiles discussed herein, the term "controlled-release" refers to wherein all or less than all of the total amount of a dosage form, made according to methods and compositions described herein, delivers an active agent over a period of time greater than 1 hour.

[0226] In one aspect, controlled-release refers to delayed release of an agent, from a composition or dosage form in which the agent is released according to a desired profile in which the release occurs after a period of time.

[0227] When present in a controlled-release oral dosage form, the compositions described herein can be administered at a substantially lower daily dosage level than immediate- release forms. [0228] In one embodiment, the controlled-release layer is capable of releasing about 30 to about 40% of the one or more active agents (e.g., prebiotic or probiotic) contained therein in the stomach of a subject in need thereof in about 5 to about 10 minutes following oral administration. In another embodiment, the controlled-release layer is capable of releasing about 90% of the one or more active agents (e.g., prebiotic or probiotic) is released in about 40 minutes after oral administration.

[0229] In some embodiment, the controlled-release layer comprises one or more excipients, including but not limited to silicified microcrystalline cellulose (e.g., HD90), croscarmellose sodium (AC-Di-Sol), hydroxyl methyl propyl cellulose, magnesium stearate, or stearic acid. In one embodiment, a controlled release formulation weighs between about 100 mg to 3 g. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition does not comprise excipients and/or preservatives.

[0230] Pharmaceutical carriers or vehicles suitable for administration of the compounds provided herein include all such carriers known to those skilled in the art to be suitable for the particular mode of administration. In addition, the compositions can one or more components that do not impair the desired action, or with components that supplement the desired action, or have another action.

[0231] In another embodiment, an effective amount of the prebiotic is formulated in an immediate release form. In this embodiment the immediate-release form can be included in an amount that is effective to shorten the time to its maximum concentration in the blood. By way of example, certain immediate-release pharmaceutical preparations are taught in United States Patent Publication US 2005/014771 OA 1 entitled, "Powder Compaction and Enrobing," which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference.

[0232] The dosage forms described herein can also take the form of pharmaceutical particles manufactured by a variety of methods, including but not limited to high-pressure homogenization, wet or dry ball milling, or small particle precipitation (nano spray). Other methods to make a suitable powder formulation are the preparation of a solution of active ingredients and excipients, followed by precipitation, filtration, and pulverization, or followed by removal of the solvent by freeze-drying, followed by pulverization of the powder to the desired particle size.

[0233] In a further aspect the dosage form can be an effervescent dosage form. Effervescent means that the dosage form, when mixed with liquid, including water and saliva, evolves a gas. Some effervescent agents (or effervescent couple) evolve gas by means of a chemical reaction which takes place upon exposure of the effervescent disintegration agent to water or to saliva in the mouth. This reaction can be the result of the reaction of a soluble acid source and an alkali monocarbonate or carbonate source. The reaction of these two general compounds produces carbon dioxide gas upon contact with water or saliva. An effervescent couple (or the individual acid and base separately) can be coated with a solvent protective or enteric coating to prevent premature reaction. Such a couple can also be mixed with previously lyophilized particles (such as a prebiotic). The acid sources can be any which are safe for human consumption and can generally include food acids, acid and hydrite antacids such as, for example: citric, tartaric, amalic, fumeric, adipic, and succinics. Carbonate sources include dry solid carbonate and bicarbonate salt such as, preferably, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate and potassium carbonate, magnesium carbonate and the like. Reactants which evolve oxygen or other gasses and which are safe for human consumption are also included. In one embodiment citric acid and sodium bicarbonate are used.

[0234] In another aspect the dosage form can be in a candy form (e.g., matrix), such as a lollipop or lozenge. In one embodiment an effective amount of a prebiotic is dispersed within a candy matrix. In one embodiment the candy matrix comprises one or more sugars (such as dextrose or sucrose). In another embodiment the candy matrix is a sugar-free matrix. The choice of a particular candy matrix is subject to wide variation. Conventional sweeteners such as sucrose can be utilized, or sugar alcohols suitable for use with diabetic patients, such as sorbitol or mannitol can be employed. Other sweeteners, such as the aspartames, can also be easily incorporated into a composition in accordance with compositions described herein. The candy base can be very soft and fast dissolving, or can be hard and slower dissolving. Various forms will have advantages in different situations. Candies with a gelatin base, such as gummy candies, may be both soft and slow dissolving. Dosage forms in a candy matrix may have particular appeal to pediatric or adolescent subjects. Certain candy matrix forms such as gummy or jelly candy forms may also facilitate ingestion by individuals suffering from conditions that may inhibit swallowing of tablet, capsule, or pill dosage forms. Various forms will have advantages in different situations.

[0235] A candy mass composition comprising an effective amount of the prebiotic can be orally administered to a subject in need thereof so that an effective amount of the prebiotic will be released into the subject's mouth as the candy mass dissolves and is swallowed. A subject in need thereof includes a human adult or child.

[0236] In one embodiment a candy mass is prepared that comprises one or more layers which can comprise different amounts or rates of dissolution of the prebiotic. In one embodiment a multilayer candy mass (such as a lollipop) comprises an outer layer with a concentration of the prebiotic differing from that of one or more inner layers. Such a drug delivery system has a variety of applications.

[0237] The choices of matrix and the concentration of the drug in the matrix can be important factors with respect to the rate of drug uptake. A matrix that dissolves quickly can deliver drug into the subject's mouth for absorption more quickly than a matrix that is slow to dissolve. Similarly, a candy matrix that contains the prebiotic in a high concentration can release more of the prebiotic in a given period of time than a candy having a low concentration. In one embodiment a candy matrix such as one disclosed in US Patent No. 4671953 or US Application Publication No.2004/0213828 (which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety) is used to deliver the prebiotic.

[0238] The dosage forms described herein can also take the form of pharmaceutical particles manufactured by a variety of methods, including but not limited to high-pressure homogenization, wet or dry ball milling, or small particle precipitation (e.g., nGimat's NanoSpray). Other methods useful to make a suitable powder formulation are the preparation of a solution of active ingredients and excipients, followed by precipitation, filtration, and pulverization, or followed by removal of the solvent by freeze-drying, followed by pulverization of the powder to the desired particle size. In one embodiment the pharmaceutical particles have a final size of 3-1000 μΜ, such as at most 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1000 μΜ. In another embodiment the pharmaceutical particles have a final size of 10-500 μΜ. In another embodiment the pharmaceutical particles have a final size of 50-600 μΜ. In another embodiment the pharmaceutical particles have a final size of 100-800 μΜ.

[0239] In one embodiment an oral dosage form (such as a powder, tablet, , oral thin or dissolving film, or capsule) is provided comprising a prebiotic composition comprising about 0.7 g of GOS, about 0.2 g of lactose, about 0.01 g of glucose, about 0.01 g of galactose, about 0.1-0.2 g of a binder, about 0.1-0.2 g of a dispersant, about 0.1-0.2 g of a solubilizer, wherein the GOS are composed of about 1-25 % disaccharides, about 1-25 % trisaccharides, about 1-25 % tetrasaccharides, and about 1-25 % pentasaccharides. In one embodiment an oral dosage form is provided comprising a prebiotic composition comprising about 0.7 g of GOS, about 0.2 g of lactose, about 0.01 g of glucose, about 0.01 g of galactose, about 0.1-0.2 g of a binder, about 0.1- 0.2 g of a dispersant, about 0.1-0.2 g of a solubilizer, wherein the GOS are composed of about 1- 25% disaccharides, about 55-65% trisaccharides, about 25-35% tetrasaccharides, about 1-25% pentasaccharides, about 1-25% hexasaccharides, or combinations thereof. The oral dosage form can be in the form of a powder, oral thin or dissolving film, capsule, or tablet. Suitable amounts of binders, dispersants, and solubilizers are known in the art for preparation of oral tablets or capsules. An oral thin or dissolving film suitable for use in delivering a prebiotic composition may be formulated as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,177,096, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Oral thin or dissolving films may be suitable for providing additional features in addition to delivery of GOS compositions, such as for freshening breath.

[0240] In another embodiment an oral dosage form (such as a powder, tablet, oral thin or dissolving film, or capsule) is provided comprising a prebiotic composition comprising about 1-99.9% by weight of GOS, about 0.5-20% by weight of lactose, about 0.1-2% by weight of glucose, about 0.1-2% by weight of galactose, about 0.05-2% by weight of a binder, about 0.05-2% by weight of a dispersant, about 0.05-2% by weight of a solubilizer, wherein the GOS are composed of about 1%, 2.5% 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 12.5%, 15%, 17.5%, 20%, 22.5%, 25%, 1- 5%, 5-10%, 10-15%, 15-20%, 20-25%, or 1-25% by weight disaccharides, about 1-25, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, or 55-75% by weight trisaccharides, about 1-25%, 20%, 22.5%, 25%, 27.5%, 30%, 32.5%, 35%, 37.5%, 40%, 20-25%, 25-30%, 30-35%, 35-40%, or 25-40% by weight tetrasaccharides, and about 1%, 2.5% 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 12.5%, 15%, 17.5%, 20%, 22.5%, 25%, 1-5%, 5-10%, 10-15%, 15-20%, 20-25%, or 1-25% by weight pentasaccharides, and about 1%, 2.5% 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 12.5%, 15%, 17.5%, 20%, 22.5%, 25%, 1-5%, 5-10%, 10-15%, 15- 20%, 20-25%, or 1-25% by weight hexasaccharides.

[0241] In another embodiment an oral dosage form (such as a powder, tablet, , oral thin or dissolving film, or capsule) is provided comprising a prebiotic composition comprising about 1, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 99.5, 100% by weight of GOS, about 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20% by weight of lactose, about 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of glucose, about 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of galactose, about 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of a binder, about 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of a dispersant, about 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of a solubilizer, wherein the GOS are composed of about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, or 25% by weight disaccharides, about 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, or 65% by weight trisaccharides, about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, or 35% by weight tetrasaccharides, about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, or 25% % by weight pentasaccharides, about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, or 25% by weight hexasaccharides, or combinations thereof.

[0242] In another embodiment, an oral dosage form is provided comprising a prebiotic composition, wherein the oral dosage form is a syrup. The syrup can comprise about 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, or 85% solid. The syrup can comprise about 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% liquid, for example, water. The solid can comprise a prebiotic composition. The solid can be, for example, about 1-96%, 10-96%, 20-96%, 30-96%, 40-96%, 50-96%, 60-96%, 70-96%, 80- 96%, or 90-96% prebiotic composition. The solid can be, for example, about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, or 96% prebiotic composition. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and another prebiotic. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and inulin or GOS and FOS.

[0243] Oral sprays (such as a mouth spray) provide an alternate means of rapid drug delivery to the oral cavity. The ease of administration of an oral spray conveniently allows for frequent additional doses to be administered on an as-needed basis. In one embodiment, an oral spray form is provided comprising a prebiotic composition comprising about 0.7 g of GOS, about 0.2 g of lactose, about 0.01 g of glucose, about 0.01 g of galactose, about 0.1-0.2 g of a binder, about 0.1-0.2 g of a dispersant, about 0.1-0.2 g of a solubilizer, wherein the GOS are composed of about 1-25% disaccharides, about 55-65% trisaccharides, about 25-35% tetrasaccharides, about 1-25% pentasaccharides, about 1-25% hexasaccharides, or combinations thereof.

[0244] In another embodiment an oral spray form is provided comprising a prebiotic composition comprising about 1-99.9% by weight of GOS, about 0.5-20% by weight of lactose, about 0.1-2% by weight of glucose, about 0.1-2% by weight of galactose, about 0.05-2% by weight of a binder, about 0.05-2% by weight of a dispersant, about 0.05-2% by weight of a solubilizer, wherein the GOS are composed of about 1-25% by weight disaccharides, about 55- 65% by weight trisaccharides, about 25-35% by weight tetrasaccharides, about 1-25% by weight pentasaccharides, about 1-25% by weight hexasaccharides, or combinations thereof.

[0245] In another embodiment an oral spray form is provided comprising a prebiotic composition comprising about 1, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 99.5, 100% by weight of GOS, about 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20% by weight of lactose, about 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of glucose, about 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of galactose, about 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of a binder, about 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of a dispersant, about 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of a solubilizer, wherein the GOS are composed of about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, or 25% by weight disaccharides, about 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, or 65% by weight trisaccharides, about 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, or 35% by weight tetrasaccharides, about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, or 25% by weight pentasaccharides, about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25% by weight hexasaccharides, or combinations thereof.

[0246] In one embodiment, a bar form is provided comprising a prebiotic composition comprising about 1, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 99.5, 100% by weight of GOS, about 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of glucose, about 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of galactose, about 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of a binder, about 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of a dispersant, about 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of a solubilizer, wherein the GOS are composed of about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, or 25% by weight disaccharides, about 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, or 65% by weight trisaccharides, about 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, or 35% by weight tetrasaccharides, about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, or 25% by weight pentasaccharides, about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25% by weight hexasaccharides, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition may be combined with protein to produce a prebiotic protein bar. Such prebiotic protein bars would be suitable for muscle building, weight loss, or meal replacement.

[0247] In one embodiment, the softgel capsule is about 0.25 mL, 0.5 mL, 1.0 mL, 1.25 mL, 1.5 mL, 1.75 mL, or 2.0 mL. In another embodiment, a softgel capsule comprises about 0.1 g to 2.0 g of prebiotic composition. In another embodiment, a softgel capsule comprises about 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, or 2.0 g of a prebiotic composition. In one embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In another embodiment the prebiotic composition consists essentially of GOS. In another embodiment, a softgel capsule comprises GOS and inulin or FOS.

[0248] In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition will be delivered in a gelatin capsule containing an amount of GOS within the ranges listed in Table 8. In another embodiment, the number of pills taken per day will be within the ranges listed in Table 8.

TABLE 8: EXEMPLARY GOS DOSING UNITS

0 0.4-1.1 1-38

1 0.3-0.8 1-50

2 0.25-0.6 1-60

3 0.2-0.5 1-75

4 0.14-0.3 1-107

[0249] In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is provided that does not contain a preservative. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is provided that does not contain an antioxidant. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is provided that does not contain a preservative or an antioxidant. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS does not contain a preservative or an antioxidant.

[0250] In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is formulated as a viscous fluid. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is formulated such that its water content is low enough that it does not support microbial growth. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is formulated as a viscous fluid without a preservative in a gel capsule. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprising GOS is a viscous fluid. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a high percentage of GOS that does not support microbial growth. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises GOS and inulin or FOS.

[0251] In another embodiment, an oral dosage form is provided comprising a prebiotic composition, wherein the oral dosage form is a softgel. In one embodiment the softgel comprises a syrup. In one embodiment the syrup comprises a prebiotic composition. In one embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In another embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises more than 80% GOS. In another embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises between 80-99.9% GOS. In another embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises more than 80% GOS. In another embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises about 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 99.9% GOS.

[0252] In one embodiment a GOS composition is formulated for delivery in a soft gel capsule. In one embodiment a GOS composition formulated for delivery in a soft gel capsule is a high percentage GOS composition, such as a 90-100% GOS composition (e.g., 90, 91, 92, 93,

94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 or 100% GOS composition by weight). In another embodiment a GOS composition formulated for delivery in a soft gel capsule comprises about 95% GOS. In another embodiment a GOS composition formulated for delivery in a soft gel capsule comprises about

96% GOS. In another embodiment, the GOS composition is formulated such that its water content is low enough that it does not support microbial growth. In another embodiment, the GOS composition is formulated as a viscous fluid without a preservative in a gel capsule. In another embodiment, the GOS composition is formulated as a viscous fluid without an antioxidant in a gel capsule. In another embodiment the soft gel capsule comprises about 0.1-2 g of a GOS composition.

[0253] In another embodiment a prebiotic composition can be formulated as described, in US Patent No. 6,750,331, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. A prebiotic composition can be formulated to comprise an oligosaccharide, a foaming component, a water-insoluble dietary fiber, or a neutralizing component. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition can be in the form of a chewable tablet. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition may be provided in the form of an orodispersible tablet or orally disintegrating tablet (ODT). Orodispersible tablets are designed to rapidly dissolve after first contact with saliva, thus eliminating the need to chew a tablet, swallow a tablet intact, or take the tablet with liquids. ODT forms of a prebiotic composition may be specifically applicable to pediatric and geriatric patients and to individuals with conditions related to impaired swallowing. The quick solubility of an ODT tablet also reduces the risk of choking or suffocation during oral administration.

[0254] In one embodiment a foaming component can be at least one member selected from the group consisting of sodium hydrogencarbonate, sodium carbonate, and calcium carbonate. In one embodiment a neutralizing component can be at least one member selected from the group consisting of citric acid, L-tartaric acid, fumaric acid, L-ascorbic acid, DL-malic acid, acetic acid, lactic acid, and anhydrous citric acid. In one embodiment a water-insoluble dietary fiber can be at least one member selected from the group consisting of crystalline cellulose, wheat bran, oat bran, cone fiber, soy fiber, and beet fiber. The formulation can contain a sucrose fatty acid ester, powder sugar, fruit juice powder, and/or flavoring material.

[0255] Formulations of the compositions described herein can include additive components selected from various known additives. Such additives include, for example, saccharides (excluding oligosaccharides), sugar alcohols, sweeteners and like excipients, binders, disintegrators, lubricants, thickeners, surfactants, electrolytes, flavorings, coloring agents, pH modifiers, fluidity improvers, and the like. Specific examples of the additives include wheat starch, potato starch, corn starch, dextrin and like starches; sucrose, glucose, fructose, maltose, xylose, lactose and like saccharides (excluding oligosaccharides); sorbitol, mannitol, maltitol, xylitol and like sugar alcohols; calcium phosphate, calcium sulfate and like excipients; starch, saccharides, gelatine, gum arabic, dextrin, methyl cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyvinyl alcohol, hydroxypropylcellulose, xanthan gum, pectin, gum tragacanth, casein, alginic acid and like binders and thickeners; leucine, isoleucine, L-valine, sugar esters, hardened oils, stearic acid, magnesium stearate, talc, macrogols and like lubricants; CMC, CMC-Na, CMC-Ca and like disintegrators; polysorbate, lecithin and like surfactants; aspartame, alitame and like dipeptides; silicon dioxide and like fluidity improvers; and stevia, saccharin, and like sweeteners. The amounts of these additives can be properly selected based on their relation to other components and properties of the preparation, production method, etc. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition does not comprise excipients and/or preservatives.

[0256] In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a chewable oral dosage formulation. In one embodiment the chewable formulation can comprises between about 1- 99.9% GOS. In one embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 80% GOS, about 5% L- ascorbic acid, about 2% anhydrous citric acid, about 3% sodium hydrogencarbonate, about 3% calcium carbonate, about 2% sucrose fatty acid, about 3% fruit juice powder, and about 2% potassium carbonate.

[0257] In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 85% GOS, about 5% L-ascorbic acid, about 3% sodium hydrogencarbonate, about 2% sodium carbonate, about 2% sucrose fatty acid ester, about 2% fruit juice powder, and about 1% potassium carbonate.

[0258] In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 90% GOS, about 2% L-ascorbic acid, about 1% anhydrous citric acid, about 2% sodium hydrogencarbonate, about 2% sodium carbonate, about 2% sucrose fatty acid ester, and about 1% potassium carbonate.

[0259] In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS, about 2% L-ascorbic acid, about 1% sodium hydrogencarbonate, and about 2% fruit juice powder. In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS and about 5% of L-ascorbic acid, anhydrous citric acid, sodium hydrogencarbonate, calcium carbonate, sucrose fatty acid, fruit juice powder, or potassium carbonate.

[0260] In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS and about 5% of L-ascorbic acid, anhydrous citric acid, sodium hydrogencarbonate, calcium carbonate, sucrose fatty acid, fruit juice powder, and potassium carbonate. VI. Treatment

A. Lactose intolerance

[0261] The present disclosure provides methods and prebiotic compositions useful for the reduction of symptoms of lactose intolerance and for improving overall gastrointestinal (GI) health. Symptoms of lactose intolerance include gas, bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, and vomiting. Minor digestive problems related to the GI also include occasional bloating, diarrhea, constipation, gas, heartburn, or stomach upset. The methods and compositions described herein can be useful for reducing or eliminating one or more of these symptoms, for example through colonic adaptation. These compositions are expected to modify the colonic microbiota, which may result in an increased tolerance to lactose and other fermentable carbohydrates. Furthermore, these compositions can allow the colonic microbiota, comprising microorganisms known to increase the ability of an individual to tolerate fermentable carbohydrates, to be regularly replenished through consumption of the compositions. Adaptation of the intestinal and colonic microbiota , improve the composition of the intestinal microbiota, and the capacity for consumption of foods comprising lactose can be increased. For example, an individual's tolerance to dairy in general can be improved through regular consumption of a prebiotic composition. This change in colonic microbiota is useful for the reduction of bloating, diarrhea, gastric distention and pain, and/or flatulence from the consumption of dairy products or other foods comprising lactose. In one embodiment, a method of treating lactose intolerance is disclosed. In another embodiment, a method of treating at least one symptom of lactose intolerance is disclosed.

[0262] There are at least three types of lactose intolerance. Primary lactose intolerance results from a decrease in lactase production as a subject ages. Secondary lactose intolerance can result when a subject's small intestine decreases lactase production after an illness, surgery, or injury to the small intestine. Secondary lactose intolerance can occur as a result of Crohn's disease, celiac disease, or gastroenteritis. This type of lactose intolerance can be temporary or permanent. A third type of lactose intolerance is congenital lactose intolerance, in which a subject is born with lactose intolerance. Risk factors that can make a person more prone to lactose intolerance include, for example, age (lactose intolerance usually has an onset of after age 5), ethnicity (lactose intolerance is more common in black, Asian, Hispanic, and American Indian populations), and premature birth (infants born 28 to 32 weeks of gestation). B. Testing lactose intolerance

[0263] Lactose intolerance can be tested either indirectly or directly. Indirect testing methods include, but are not limited to: a hydrogen breath test, a stool acidity test, a blood glucose test, or milk challenge test. In the hydrogen breath test, the breath is measured to determine the amount of hydrogen produced after consuming a measured amount of lactose, typically 15g. The lactose is administered by drinking a lactose mixture, and the subject exhales into a vacuum-sealed collection tube at three one hour time intervals. A high level of hydrogen in the breath indicates an improper digestion of lactose. In a stool test, the stool is tested to determine the amount of acid. In a blood glucose test, the blood is tested to determine the amount of glucose (sugar) content after administering a predetermined amount of lactose- containing product to the subject. Lactose maldigestion is often defined more specifically as an "increase in blood glucose concentration of < 1.12 mmol/L or breath hydrogen of >20ppm after ingestion of lg/kg body weight or 50g lactose" (de Vrese et al., 2001). The direct method measures lactase activity in a mucosal biopsy specimen.

[0264] The stool acidity test is typically used to test lactose intolerance in infants and young children. The hydrogen breath test is typically not recommended for young children since dehydration can occur due to diarrhea after ingestion of the lactose-containing drink.

[0265] Effectiveness of treatment can be measured in a number of ways. Conventional measurements, such as those described, can be used before and after treatment. Alternatively, or in addition, the amount of lactose-containing product that can be administered before the onset of one or more symptoms can be measured or evaluated before and after treatment. Thus, for example, treatment can be considered fully or partially effective if, after treatment, less hydrogen is produced on average in a subject after challenge with a food comprising lactose (such as a dairy product).

[0266] In one embodiment, the Hydrogen Breath Test (HBT) is utilized to determine facilitation of lactose metabolism by GOS containing compositions (e.g. GOS 95), thereby resulting in less hydrogen production following lactose challenge as compared to baseline levels. In one embodiment the GOS composition is a high percentage composition, such as about 90% or greater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% by weight). In one embodiment, the HBT test involves administering 25 mg of lactose and determining the amount of hydrogen in the breath at periodic intervals, usually for four to eight hours (Bhatnagar and Aggarwal 2007). In another embodiment, fecal bacteria levels are assessed for bacterial DNA samples to assess bacterial adaptation. In another embodiment, treatment with GOS compositions (e.g. GOS 95) is expected to provide relief fromone or more lactose intolerance symptoms beyond the treatment phase. In one embodiment the GOS composition is a high percentage composition, such as about 90% or greater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% by weight).

[0267] More commonly, a subject cannot precisely test the amount of hydrogen or use a blood glucose test to measure effectiveness. Instead, a subject can subjectively determine the quantity of lactose-containing products they can consume, and the types and degree of symptoms experienced after such consumption. "Partial" elimination of symptoms of lactose intolerance includes a subjective or measurable increase in the amount of lactose that can be consumed before the onset of symptoms. "Substantial" elimination of symptoms of lactose intolerance, as used herein, encompasses an effect where at least about twice the amount of lactose or a lactose containing food can be consumed after treatment before the onset of symptoms as could have been consumed before treatment. "Complete" or "substantially complete" elimination of symptoms of lactose intolerance, as used herein, indicates that normal amounts of lactose can be consumed after treatment (i.e., the amount of lactose in a typical diet for the area or culture in which the subject normally lives) without symptoms, or with only the rare occurrence of symptoms.

[0268] In one embodiment a subject in need thereof can consume one half cup (4 oz.; about 120 mL) of milk with no, or minimal, symptoms of lactose intolerance. However, consumption of 1 or more cups (about 240 mL) of milk causes symptoms of lactose intolerance, such as gas or diarrhea, to occur. After treatment with a composition and/or dosing regimen disclosed herein, a subject can find that 1 and one -half cups (about 360 mL) of milk can be consumed in a single administration without causing any symptoms of lactose intolerance. The subject would experience the substantial elimination of the symptoms of lactose intolerance. In another embodiment a subject can find that after treatment with a composition and/or dosing regimen disclosed a normal diet for their geographical or cultural region can be consumed with no, or rare, symptoms of lactose intolerance.

[0269] In another embodiment effectiveness can be measured by a percentage decrease in one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance. In this measurement, the severity of a predetermined symptom, or set of symptoms is measured before and after treatment, e.g., using pre and post Likert scale. Exemplary symptoms include gas, bloating, diarrhea, cramping, abdominal pain, and vomiting. Any one or more than one, of the symptoms can be measured. For example, a subject can be asked to rate one or more symptoms on a scale of increasing severity from 1 to 5. In one embodiment, a set of symptoms is rated, and the ratings are added; for example, gas, bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, abdominal distension, vomiting, nausea, or cramping can be rated. In another embodiment a percentage change in one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance can be calculated based on a subject's ratings before and after treatment with a composition or method disclosed herein. In one embodiment the composition is a prebiotic composition. In one embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In one embodiment symptoms of lactose intolerance can be considered to be reduced by the a subject's reported decrease in one or more specific symptoms after challenge with a food comprising lactose (e.g., if there is a 50% decrease in symptoms, then symptoms of lactose intolerance are reduced by 50%).

[0270] In another embodiment a milk challenge test is used to determine if a subject is lactose intolerant. In the milk challenge test, a subject fasts overnight, and then the person drinks a glass of milk in the morning. After drinking the milk, nothing else is eaten or drunk for three to five hours. If a subject experiences one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance within several hours after consuming the milk then the subject is lactose intolerant.

[0271] In one embodiment, a lactose intolerance diagnostic device is used to determine if a subject is lactose intolerant. In one embodiment, a diagnostic device is a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire wherein a subject rates the severity of exemplary symptoms of lactose intolerance. In one embodiment, the symptoms are rated on a scale of 0 to 5, wherein 0 indicates no symptoms, 1 indicates slight symptoms, 2 indicates mild symptoms, 3 indicates moderate symptoms, 4 indicates moderately severe symptoms, and 5 indicates severe symptoms. In one embodiment, the symptoms include abdominal pain/cramps, bloating, flatulence, diarrhea and/or nausea/upset stomach. In one embodiment, a questionnaire can be filled out after a lactose challenge. In another embodiment, a questionnaire can be filled out after a milk challenge. In another embodiment, a questionnaire can be filled out without a challenge. In one embodiment, a single score of 4 or 5 indicates a subject has lactose intolerance. In another embodiment, two or more scores of 3 or greater indicates a subject has lactose intolerance. In another embodiment, a score of 3 or greater for a single symptom at two different timepoints indicates a subject has lactose intolerance. In another embodiment, a change in the average scores over time is used to evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment regimen.

[0272] In another embodiment a subject is directly tested for lactose intolerance by biopsying the intestinal lining and measuring lactase levels in the lining.

C. Types of lactose intolerance and treatments

[0273] People can have different degrees of lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance can also be psychologically induced. There are also many different variations of lactose intolerance depending on the subject. For example, some subjects cannot consume cheese, melted cheese, plain milk, or warm dairy containing products like milk in coffee without experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance. In another embodiment a subject cannot consume any dairy products without experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance. In some embodiment a lactose intolerant subject is limited to consuming special "lactose free" foods that have been manufactured to be free of lactose. Some examples of these "lactose free" foods are: MOCHA MIX® ice cream, TOFUTTI® ice cream and ice cream sandwiches, LACTAID® brand milk, FORMAGG™ cheese, TOFUTTI® "Better than Cream Cheese", and margarine.

[0274] In one embodiment a subject consumes a lactase tablet to help digest the lactose in milk or a milk product. Each lactase tablet typically hydrolyzes up to 99% of the ingested lactose within 24 hours and is designed to be ingested with the lactose containing food. Other possible techniques for dealing with lactose maldigestion are to use microgranules containing bioactive compounds or microorganisms (see, e.g., U.S. Patent No. 5,952,021, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety). The use of an active lactase composition for treatment of lactase deficiency is described in U.S. Patent No. 3,718,739, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Digestive Advantage™ Lactose Intolerance Therapy, which includes probiotics and digestive enzymes, can also be used for dietary management of lactose maldigestion.

D. Administration of prebiotic compositions

[0275] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition is used in a method by administering increasing doses of the composition to a subject who is suffering from lactose intolerance, experiencing symptoms of lactose intolerance, or is in need of improving overall gastrointestinal (GI) health. In one embodiment the subject experiences a reduction or elimination of one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance or an improvement in overall gastrointestinal health after administration of the prebiotic composition. In one embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In one embodiment a GOS composition can optionally comprise digestible saccharides. In one embodiment, a GOS composition is administered in about equal doses over a period of time to a subject with lactose intolerance or symptoms of lactose intolerance, or to a subject in need of improved gastrointestinal health. In one embodiment a GOS composition is administered in increasing doses, for a period of time, to a subject with lactose intolerance or symptoms of lactose intolerance, or to a subject in need of improved gastrointestinal health. In one embodiment a GOS composition is provided in any form suitable for oral consumption, such as by a liquid, tablet, capsule, or powdered form. In one embodiment a subject is treated with just a GOS composition, without supplementation with a probiotic.

[0276] In another embodiment, other substances can be administered in combination with a GOS composition. In one embodiment lactose is simultaneously administered with a GOS composition. In one embodiment lactose is administered before a GOS composition (e.g., before a regimen of increasing doses of a GOS composition begins, or before a dose of a GOS composition during such a regimen). In another embodiment a digestible saccharide is administered after a dose of GOS composition (e.g., after a regimen of increasing doses of GOS compositions begins, or after a dose of GOS compositions during such a regimen). In another embodiment, a digestible saccharide can be administered simultaneously with, before, or after the administration of the GOS composition or any combination thereof.

[0277] In another embodiment a GOS composition is supplemented with one or more other non-digestible saccharides, such as inulin, FOS, lactulose, raffinose, stachyose, or a combination thereof. In another embodiment the GOS composition is supplemented with one or more strains of probiotic bacteria. In another embodiment the GOS composition is supplemented with one or more digestible saccharides, salts, or buffers, e.g., phosphates.

[0278] In another embodiment a GOS composition is administered in combination with lactase, or with a product containing pre-digested lactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition is administered in an increasing dose, in combination with lactase or with a product containing pre-digested lactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition is administered in an about equal doses over time, in combination with lactase or with a product containing pre- digested lactose.

[0279] In one embodiment, colonic bacteria adapt readily to undigested carbohydrates, such as high purity GOS compositions (e.g. GOS 95), resulting in dramatically improved lactose tolerance. In one embodiment the GOS composition is a high percentage composition, such as about 90% or greater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% by weight). In one embodiment GOS promotes the selective growth of beneficial lactose-metabolizing colonic bacteria (multiple species and strains of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli). Bifidobacteria carry out non-hydrogen-producing lactose fermentation reactions in addition to inhibiting hydrogen-producing bacteria, such as E. coli. It is this excessive hydrogen production that defines lactose malabsorption and ultimately is responsible for the symptoms associated with lactose intolerance (Gibson 1994, 1995). [0280] In one embodiment, administration of a composition comprising an indigestible oligosaccharide results in an alteration of colonic bacteria. The colonic bacteria can be from the colonic microbiome. In one embodiment, the alteration of the colonic bacteria comprises altering one or more operational taxonomic units (OTUs). In one embodiment, administration of an indigestible oligosaccharide composition promotes an increase in the representation of beneficial colonic bacteria. The beneficial bacteria can comprise Lactobacillus species, Faecalibacterium species, Roseburia species, Bifidobacterium species, Coprococcus bacterial species, Dorea bacterial species, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, administration of an indigestible oligosaccharide composition promotes a reduction in gas producing members of the colonic microbiome. The gas producing bacteria can comprise one more Clostridium species or E. coli. In one embodiment, administration of an indigestible oligosaccharide promotes an alteration in the fecal or colonic microbiome such that beneficial lactose metabolizing colonic bacteria have increased representation while gas producing bacteria have decreased representation. In one embodiment, the indigestible oligosaccharide comprises a GOS. In one embodiment, administration of a GOS composition entails dietary adaptation to GOS. In one embodiment, the microbiome of the colon is altered by treatment with a GOS composition that comprises GOS and less than 20% digestible saccharides by weight. In one embodiment,administration of an indigestible oligosaccharide composition results in an alteration of colonic bacteria for at least 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 9 months, one year, 18 months, two years, three years, four years, or five years after the termination of GOS treatment. In one embodiment, administration of an indigestible oligosaccharide composition results in an alteration of one or more OTUs from the colonic microbiome for at least 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 9 months, one year, 18 months, two years, three years, four years, or five years after the termination of GOS treatment. In one embodiment,administration of a GOS composition results in an alteration of colonic bacteria for at least 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 9 months, one year, 18 months, two years, three years, four years, or five years after the termination of GOS treatment. In one embodiment,administration of a GOS composition results in an alteration of one or more OTUs from the colonic microbiome for at least 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 9 months, one year, 18 months, two years, three years, four years, or five years after the termination of GOS treatment. In one embodiment, the alteration of the colonic microbiome is determined by conducting a genetic analysis. In one embodiment, the genetic analysis comprises performing a terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis on nucleic acid isolated from a sample obtained from the colon. In one embodiment, the genetic analysis comprises performing a sequencing reaction on nucleic acid isolated from a sample obtained from the colon. The sample obtained from the colon can be a fecal or stool sample. The nucleic acid can be DNA, RNA, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the sequencing reaction can comprise pyrosequencing. In one embodiment, the sequencing reaction can comprise 16S rRNA sequencing. In one embodiment, the sequencing reaction can comprise 16S rRNA pyrosequencing.

[0281] In another embodiment, one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance in a subject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance are decreased or eliminated by administering to the subject a GOS composition for a period of time. In one embodiment the administration comprises increasing the amounts of a GOS composition administered to a subject over time. In another embodiment the administration comprises administering about equal amounts of a GOS composition to a subject over time. In one embodiment, a symptom of lactose intolerance remains partially, substantially, or completely eliminated or decreased in severity in a subject for at least about 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 9 months, one year, 18 months, two years, three years, four years, or five years after the termination of treatment. In another embodiment a symptom of lactose intolerance remains partially, substantially, or completely eliminated or decreased in severity in a subject for more than 5 years. In another embodiment a symptom of lactose intolerance is permanently eliminated or decreased in severity in a subject after the termination of treatment. In another embodiment, the methods herein decrease symptoms of lactose intolerance in a subject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance by administering to the subject increasing amounts of a GOS composition for a period of time, wherein symptoms of lactose intolerance are substantially eliminated for at least about one month after treatment is terminated.

[0282] In another embodiment, one or more symptoms of poor gastrointestinal health in a subject exhibiting symptoms of poor gastrointestinal health are decreased or eliminated by administering to the subject a composition comprising an indigestible oligosaccharide for a period of time that alters the microbiome of the colon. In one embodiment, the indigestible oligosaccharide comprises GOS. The one or more symptoms of poor gastrointestinal health can comprise abdominal pain, bloating, flatulence (gas), diarrhea (loose stools), abdominal cramping, gurgling (bowel sounds), nausea (upset stomach), heartburn, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the alteration of the colonic micorbiome as a result of administration of a GOS composition causes a symptom of poor gastrointestinal health to remain partially, substantially, or completely eliminated or decreased in severity in a subject for at least about 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 9 months, one year, 18 months, two years, three years, four years, or five years after the termination of treatment. In another embodiment a symptom of poor gastrointestinal health remains partially, substantially, or completely eliminated or decreased in severity in a subject for more than 5 years. In another embodiment a symptom of poor gastrointestinal health is permanently eliminated or decreased in severity in a subject after the termination of treatment. In another embodiment, the methods herein decrease symptoms of poor gastrointestinal health in a subject exhibiting symptoms of poor gastrointestinal health by administering to the subject increasing amounts of a GOS composition for a period of time, wherein symptoms of poor gastrointestinal health are substantially eliminated for at least about one month after treatment is terminated. In one embodiment, the subject exhibiting one or more symptoms of poor gastrointestinal health has lactose intolerance, Crohn's disease, irritable bowel syndrome, traveler's diarrhea or a combination thereof.

[0283] In one embodiment, one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance in a subject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance are decreased or eliminated by administering to the subject a composition comprising an indigestible oligosaccharide for a period of time that alters the microbiome of the colon. In one embodiment, the indigestible oligosaccharide comprises GOS. The one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance can comprise abdominal pain, bloating, flatulence (gas), diarrhea (loose stools), abdominal cramping, gurgling (bowel sounds), nausea (upset stomach), heartburn, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the alteration of the colonic micorbiome as a result of administration of a GOS composition causes a symptom of lactose intolerance to remain partially, substantially, or completely eliminated or decreased in severity in a subject for at least about 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 9 months, one year, 18 months, two years, three years, four years, or five years after the termination of treatment. In another embodiment a symptom of lactose intolerance remains partially, substantially, or completely eliminated or decreased in severity in a subject for more than 5 years. In another embodiment a symptom of lactose intolerance is permanently eliminated or decreased in severity in a subject after the termination of treatment. In another embodiment, the methods herein decrease symptoms of lactose intolerance in a subject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance by administering to the subject increasing amounts of a GOS composition for a period of time, wherein symptoms of lactose intolerance are substantially eliminated for at least about one month after treatment is terminated.

[0284] In another embodiment, a symptom of lactose intolerance in a subject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance is decreased or eliminated by administering to the subject increasing amounts of a prebiotic composition for a period of time, wherein the symptoms of lactose intolerance, measured as described herein, are decreased by an average of about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or about 100% when compared to symptoms prior to the administration of a prebiotic composition. An "average" decrease is a decrease as measured in a group of subjects exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance, such as more than about 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 20, or 30 subjects. In one embodiment, the decrease in or elimination of a symptom of lactose intolerance persists for at least about 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 9 months, one year, 18 months, two years, three years, four years, or five years. In another embodiment a symptom of lactose intolerance remains partially, substantially, or completely eliminated or decreased in severity in a subject for more than 5 years after the termination of treatment. In one embodiment, the decrease or elimination of a symptom is permanent. In another embodiment, the present disclosure provides for a method of decreasing symptoms of lactose intolerance in a subject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance by administering to the subject increasing amounts of a prebiotic composition for a period of time, wherein one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance, measured as described herein, are decreased by an average of at least about 20% and remain decreased by at least about 20% for at least about one month after treatment is terminated.

[0285] In another embodiment, the methods herein decrease symptoms of lactose intolerance in a subject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance by administering to the subject increasing amounts of a prebiotic composition for a period of time, wherein one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance, measured as described herein, are decreased by an average of about least about 50% and remain decreased by at least about 50% for at least about one month after treatment is terminated.

[0286] In another embodiment, the methods herein decrease symptoms of lactose intolerance in a subject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance by administering to the subject increasing amounts of a prebiotic composition for a period of time, wherein one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance, measured as described herein, are decreased by an average of about least about 75% and remain decreased by at least about 75% for at least about one month after treatment is terminated.

[0287] In one embodiment the total duration of treatment of lactose intolerance can be from about one week to about 12 weeks, or about four weeks to about ten weeks, or about four weeks to about eight weeks, or about six weeks. During this period of time, the subject is started on a program of taking increasing amounts of a prebiotic composition described herein (such as a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), optionally along with ingestion of lactose containing food products. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition can also be administered in combination with another substance (such as a probiotic), as described herein. In one embodiment, the total duration of treatment is about 5 days to about 35 days. In one embodiment, the total duration of treatment is about 7 days to about 90 days, or about 7 days to about 60 days, or about 14 days to about 50 days, or about 14 days to about 40 days, or about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, or 60 days. In another embodiment, the total duration of treatment is about 30 days. In another embodiment, the total duration of treatment is about 34 days. In another embodiment, the total duration of treatment is about 36 days. In another embodiment, the total duration of treatment is about 38 days. In another embodiment, the total duration of treatment is about 42 days. In another embodiment, the total duration of treatment is about 60 days. In another embodiment, the total duration of treatment is about 90 days.

[0288] In another embodiment, the total duration of treatment is based on a subject's response to the treatment. For example, an individual can experience a reduction in lactose intolerance symptoms after 14 days of treatment with a prebiotic composition. In another example an individual can experience a reduction in lactose intolerance symptoms after 30 days of treatment with a prebiotic composition. Thus, the duration of treatment is determined by an individual subject's response to a prebiotic composition and the onset of relief from one or more lactose intolerance symptoms.

[0289] In one embodiment the treatment is continuous. In one embodiment, the duration of the treatment is based on a subject's symptoms of lactose intolerance. Thus, a subject can experience symptoms at a given dose of a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), and can require that the subject stay at that dose, or a lower dose, until symptoms subside. Thus, in one embodiment, the duration of the treatment is not determined at the outset, but continues until the maximum dose of a prebiotic composition (such as a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), is achieved per day, or until the desired level of lactose tolerance is achieved. In one embodiment the maximum amount of prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), administered per day is between 0.4 g and 20 g, such as about 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, 15, 15.5, 16, 16.5, 17, 17.5, 18, 18.5, 19, 19.5, or 20 g per day. In another embodiment, a dose can be about 0.4 g to 6 g. [0290] In one embodiment, a subject can be given one dose for a period of time during a treatment regimen and a second dose during a second period of time during the treatment regimen. For example, a subject can be administered one dose of prebiotic composition for a one or two week period and a second dose for a subsequent one or two week period. In one embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises GOS.

[0291] In one embodiment an increasing dosage of a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), can be achieved by increasing the number of doses per day of the composition administered, increasing the amount of a prebiotic composition administered per dose, or both. In one embodiment, both strategies are used. Thus, in one embodiment, a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), is initially administered once per day, at increasing doses, for a predetermined number of days. This can be followed by a period of time when a prebiotic composition is administered twice per day as a first and second dose. The first dose of a prebiotic composition can be administered at a constant dose while the second dose can be administered in increasing doses, for a pre-determined number of days. In one embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In one embodiment, the dose can be administered to a subject at a frequency of once per day, twice per day, or three times per day. The number of days of administration can last for a period of about 1 to 90 days, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, or 90 days.

[0292] In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition can be administered twice per day. The first dose of the prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), can remain constant while the second dose increases over time. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), can be administered an average of about once per day, twice per day, three, four, five, six, or more than six timer per day, or any combination thereof. The prebiotic composition can be administered for a period of about 1 to 90 days, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, or 90 days. [0293] In another embodiment the prebiotic composition is administered at the same dosage level at each administration. Thus, in one embodiment, a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), is initially administered once to six times per day at the same dosage level. The prebiotic composition can be administered for a period of about 1 to 90 days, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, or 90 days.

[0294] In one embodiment, a subject who has completed a treatment regimen consumes dairy products at least once every 4-5 days in order to maintain the reduction in symptoms of lactose intolerance.

[0295] In another embodiment, a subject self-administers a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS). In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), composition is supplied or recommended by a health professional, e.g., a dietician, nutritionist, nurse, physician, or other qualified health professional. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), is administered by a health professional or results of the program are monitored by a health professional. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), is labeled as a medical food.

[0296] In one embodiment a subject in need thereof can repeat courses of treatment with a prebiotic composition. The course of treatment can be repeated when symptoms of lactose intolerance reappear or increase to an undesirable level. Alternatively, the course of treatment can be repeated at regular or predetermined intervals. Thus, treatment can be repeated after about one month, two months, three months, four months, six months, eight months, ten months, one year, 18 months, two years, three years, four years, five years, or more than five years, or any combination thereof (e.g., treatment can be repeated after one year, then every two to five years thereafter). The treatment can be repeated in the same form (e.g., duration, dosage, timing of dosage, additional substances, etc.) as used in the first treatment or it can be modified. For example, treatment duration can be shortened or lengthened, dosage can be increased more quickly or slowly or a higher or lower starting dose of a prebiotic composition, a different prebiotic composition (such as a composition comprising inulin, FOS, lactulose, raffinose, stachyose or combinations thereof) can be used (e.g., containing more or less of other substances, or fewer or more substances in addition to GOS or digestible saccharides), and the like.In one embodiment an initial dose of a prebiotic composition is administered to a subject in need thereof as part of a dosing regimen with incremental increases in the dosage of the prebiotic composition over time. The incremental increases in a prebiotic composition dosage can be any suitable dose size. In one embodiment, the starting dose of a prebiotic composition is about 0.05 g to 4.0 g, or about 0.1 g to about 3 g, or about 0.2 g to about 3.0 g, or about 0.2 g to about 2 g, or about 0.4 g to about 1.6 g, or about 0.4 g to about 1.4 g, or about 0.6 g to about 1.2 g, or about 0.6 g to about 1.0 g, or about 0.7 g to about 0.9 g, or about 0.8 g. In another embodiment, the starting dose of a prebiotic composition is about 0.2 g to about 4.7 g, about 0.5 g to about 8.0 g, or about 0.4 g to about 6.8 g. In one embodiment, the incremental increase in prebiotic or GOS composition dosage can vary, or each increase can be the same, or any combination thereof. In another embodiment, an amount of a prebiotic composition administered to a subject in need thereof can be increased incrementally by about 0.05 g to 4.0 g, or about 0.1 g to about 3 g, or about 0.2 g to about 3.0 g, or about 0.2 g to about 2 g, or about 0.4 g to about 1.6 g, or about 0.4 g to about 1.4 g, or about 0.6 g to about 1.2 g, or about 0.6 g to about 1.0 g, or about 0.7 g to about 0.9 g, or about 0.8 g. In another embodiment, an amount of a prebiotic composition administered to a subject in need thereof can be increased incrementally by about 0.5 g, about 0.29 g, about 0.30 g, or about 0.42 g, about 0.43 g. In another embodiment, an amount of a prebiotic composition administered to a subject in need thereof can be increased incrementally by 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, or 1 g per dose. The maximum dose reached in treatment can be any suitable dose size, depending on the subject being treated and the outcome desired. In one embodiment the maximum dose of a prebiotic composition administered in a single dose can be about 1 g to about 2 g, about 3 g to about 4 g, about 5 g to about 6 g, about 6 g to about 60 g, or about 12 g to about 48 g, or about 14g to about 36 g, or about 16g to about 36 g, or about 18g to about 34 g, or about 20 g to about 32 g, or about 22 g to about 30 g, or about 23 g to about 29 g, or about 24 g to about 28 g, or about 25 to about 27 g, or about 25.5 g to about 26.5 g, or about 25.5 g, 25.6 g, or 25.7 g per dose. In one embodiment the maximum dose of prebiotic composition administered is about 12 g per dose.

[0297] In one embodiment, an initial dose of prebiotic composition is about 0.4 g, and the dose is increased by 0.4 g over time, for example, daily, until a maximum dose of 20 g to 25 g of a prebiotic composition is reached. In another embodiment, the initial dose of a prebiotic composition is about 0.5 g, and the dose is increased by 0.5 g over time, for example, daily, until a maximum of 8.0 g to 15 g of prebiotic composition per day is reached.

[0298] In another embodiment, the doses of a high purity GOS composition (e.g. GOS 95) are gradually increased over 35 days beginning with 1.5 gm/day and increasing to 15 gm/day (7.5 gm twice daily). In one embodiment the GOS composition is a high percentage composition, such as about 90% or greater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% by weight).

[0299] A prebiotic composition can be administered in any suitable form, such as a powder, capsules, tablets, a powder that can be dissolved in a liquid prior to consumption, or in liquid form, (e.g., GOS pre-dissolved in a liquid). Any grade or form of prebiotics that is suitable for consumption by the subject being treated, e.g., by a human, can be used. A prebiotic composition comprising GOS can be distributed in a syrup form. A GOS syrup can be diluted with water prior to ingestion. A GOS syrup can be administered with a meal. In one embodiment a GOS composition is administered to a subject in one or more capsules. In one embodiment the GOS comprosition coprises a high percentage of GOS (e.g., about 90% by weight of GOS or more). In one embodiment the one or more capsules are 000, 00 or 0 size capsules. In one embodiment, the subject is administered the one or more capsules at least twice a day. In one embodiment, the subject is administered the one or more capsules for two or more days. In one embodiment the subject is administered more capsules on the last day than on the first day. In another embodiment the subject is administered the same number of capsules on the last day as on the first day.

[0300] Additional substances can be given in conjunction with a prebiotic composition or GOS composition. These substances can enhance the action of the increasing doses of prebiotic by, e.g., encouraging the growth of bacteria in the gut that alleviate symptoms of lactose intolerance, increasing adhesion of probiotic or beneficial commensal bacteria, or allowing doses of probiotic bacteria to more readily pass through the stomach without being destroyed. These substances can be given prior to treatment with prebiotic, during treatment with prebiotic, after treatment with prebiotic, or any combination thereof. If administered during prebiotic treatment, they can be administered with the dose of prebiotic being given, or before or after the dose of prebiotic, or any combination thereof.

[0301] In one embodiment substances are provided for use in conjunction with a prebiotic composition include a probiotic microbe(s), lactase or other lactose digestive enzymes, or buffers (such as phosphates). One or more of these substances can be used in combination with prebiotic composition at any suitable time before, during, after treatment, or some combination thereof. In one embodiment, during some or all of the treatment, a prebiotic composition is administered in conjunction with live bacteria. In another embodiment, during some or all of the treatment, a prebiotic composition is administered in conjunction with lactase or other lactose digestive enzymes. In another embodiment, during some or all of the treatment, a prebiotic composition is administered in conjunction with a buffer (e.g., phosphates). In another embodiment, during some or all of the treatment, a prebiotic composition (e.g., GOS) comprises trace amounts of digestible saccharides, such as lactose, glucose or galactose. In one embodiment the trace amounts of digestible saccharides make up 5% by weight (such as 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, 0.5%, or 0.1%) or less of the prebiotic composition. In another embodiment the trace amounts of digestible saccharides make up about 20% by weight (such as about 20%, 19%, 18%, 17%, 16%, 15%, 14%, 13%, 12%, 11%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, 0.5%, or 0.1%) or less of the prebiotic composition.

[0302] In one embodiment, a high purity GOS composition (e.g., GOS 95) is used. In one embodiment, the dose of GOS 95 is from 1.5 g to 12 g/day (6 g BID). In one embodiment the GOS composition is a high percentage composition, such as about 90% or greater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% GOS by weight). In one embodiment, the dose of a high purity GOS composition is administered for 15 days or 30 days. In another embodiment, a high percentage GOS composition is administered at escalating dosages for 15 or 30 days. In one embodiment, a therapeutic dose of a high purity GOS composition is based on human exposure-response relationship and pharmacokinetics. In one embodiment, the starting dose for a high percentage GOS composition has a low potential for undesirable GI adverse effects. In another embodiment, a dosing regimen for a high purity GOS composition results in a steady-state exposure of the gut to GOS facilitating optimal gut microflora re-population.

[0303] In one embodiment, after a 15 day administration of GOS, the doses of GOS are gradually increased over 30 days or at a more rapid rate over 15 days beginning with 1.5 g - 3 g/day and increasing to 12 g/day (6 g BID); doses are in liquid form and are mixed with water and taken as directed by the dosing scheme.

[0304] In one embodiment, GOS is administered for about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 or 60 days. In one embodiment, GOS is administered for about 15 days. In another embodiment, GOS is administered for 30 days. In another embodiment, GOS is administered for 35 days. In one embodiment, GOS is administered for about 1-60 days about 1-30 days, about 5-25 days, about 10-20 days, or about 12 to 18 days. In one embodiment, the prebiotic comprises GOS. The percent of GOS in the prebiotic composition can be about 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% GOS. The percent of GOS in the prebiotic composition can be about 90-100%, about 95- 100%, about 96-100%, about 97-100%, about 98-100%, or about 99 to 100%. In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises at least about 95% GOS. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises at least about 96% GOS. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises at least about 96.8% GOS. In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition is GOS 95. The number of days the doses of prebiotic composition comprising GOS can be gradually increased can be about 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100 days. In another embodiment, the number of days the doses of prebiotic composition can be gradually increased can be about 2-30 days, about 2-38 days, about 10-20 days, about 20-100 days, about 20-50 days, about 20-40 days, or about 20-30 days. In another embodiment, the number of days the doses of prebiotic composition can be increased at can be about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, or 19 days, or about 1-20 days, about 1-15 days, or about 10-20 days. In one embodiment, the beginning dose of prebiotic composition can about 1.5 g/day to 3 g/day, about 0.1 g/day to 20 g/day, about 0.1 g/day to 15 g/day, or about 0.1 g/day to 10 g/day. In another embodiment, the beginning dose of prebiotic composition can be about 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, orlO g/day. In another embodiment, the dose of prebiotic composition can be increased to about 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, 15, 15.5, 16, 16.5, 17, 17.5, 18, 18.5, 19, 19.5, 20, 20.5, 21, 21.5, 22, 22.5, 23, 23.5, or 24 g/day. In another embodiment, the dose of prebiotic can be increased to about 2-24, 5-20, 7-18, or 10-15 g/day. In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition can be administered once a day, twice a day, three times a day, four times a day, five times a day, or six times a day. In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprising GOS is GOS 95. Examples of GOS 95 dosages are shown in Table 9.

TABLE 9: EXAMPLES OF DOSAGES OF GOS 95

[0305] The subject to whom the prebiotic composition can be administered can include, for example, a human, for example, a preterm newborn, a full term newborn, an infant up to one year of age, young children (e.g., 1 yr to 12 yrs), teenagers, (e.g., 13-19 yrs), adults (e.g., 20-64 yrs), pregnant women, and elderly adults (65 yrs and older). The age of the subject can be about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, or 110 years. In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition is comprises a high percentgate of GOS, such as about 90% or greater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% GOS by weight). In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition is GOS 95.

[0306] The subject to whom the prebiotic composition can be administered can be a pediatric subject aged birth up to the 16^th birthday. The pediatric subject can be from any of the recognized pediatric age categories. The subject can be a neonate, aged 0-1 months; an infant, aged 1 month to 2 years; a child, aged 2 to 12 years; or an adolescent, aged 12 to 16 years. In one embodiment, the pediatric subject is administered a liquid formulation of the prebiotic composition, for example a GOS composition. In another embodiment the pediatric subject is administered a GOS composition in a capsule or tablet. In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition is comprises a high percentgate of GOS, such as about 90% or greater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% GOS by weight).

[0307] In another embodiment, the dose of the GOS composition (e.g. GOS 95)is gradually increased over 15 days or at a slower rate over 30 days beginning with 1.5 - 3 g/day and increasing to 12 g/day (6g BID) to reach the corresponding level of lactose per day in approximately 24 ounces of milk. This level of 24 ounces of milk was chosen to develop tolerance to a total of three servings of dairy per day, the recommended level in the US Dietary Guidelines to meet calcium and other nutrient needs. In another embodiment, subjects who are lactose intolerant and treated with GOS 95 develop tolerance. In one embodiment, developing tolerance is from gradually increasing the dose of GOS 95. Gradual and continuous exposure of the gut through step-wise titration of lactose-containing products has resulted in optimized efficacy and tolerance of these products in the adaptation of colonic re-population and amelioration of lactose intolerance symptoms (Landon et al. 2006). In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition is comprises a high percentgate of GOS, such as about 90% or greater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% GOS). [0308] In another embodiment, a high perecentage GOS composition (e.g. GOS 95) is administered over a 35 day period to improve lactose metabolism via the adaptation of intestinal bacterial metabolism in subjects who are lactose intolerant. The dose of the high perecentage GOS composition can be gradually increased over 35 days, beginning with 1.5 g/day and increasing to 15 g/day (7.5g/dose, twice per day). The dose of the high perecentage GOS composition can be 1.5g/day for days 1-5, 3 g/day for days 6-10, 6 g/day for days 11-15, 7.5 g/day (a 1.5 g dose and a 6.0 g dose) for days 16-20, 9 g/day (a 3.0 g dose and a 6.0 g dose) for days 21-25, 12 g/day (two 6.0 g doses) for days 26-30, and 15 g/day (two 7.5 g doses) for days 31-35. In another embodiment, an improvement in lactose tolerance would be expected to last for at least 30 days after cessation of treatment. In one embodiment, the high perecentage GOS composition comprises about 90% or more GOS (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% GOS).

[0309] In one embodiment, a subject undergoes a booster program after completion of the primary treatment program, which comprises administering a prebiotic composition comprising GOS to a subject. The length of a booster program can be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35 days, or more. In one embodiment the dose of the prebiotic composition comprising GOS(e.g. GOS 95, etc.) administered during the booster program can be about 0.5 g, 1 g, 1.5 g, 2 g, 2.5 g, 3 g, 3.5 g, 4 g, 4.5 g, 5 g, 5.5 g, 6 g, 6.5 g, 7 g, 7.5 g, 8 g, 8.5 g, 9 g, 9.5 g, 10 g, 10.5 g, 11 g, 11.5 g, 12 g, 12.5 g, 13 g, 13.5 g, 14 g, 14.5 g, 15 g, or more. In one embodiment, the same dose of the prebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95.) is administered each day of a booster program. In another embodiment, a larger dose of the prebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95) is administered on the final day of a booster program than is administered on the first day. In one embodiment, the length of a booster program can be 10 days. In another embodiment, about 3 g of the prebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95) is administered on days 1 - 5 of a booster program and about 6 g of the prebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95) is administered on days 6 - 10 of a booster program. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95) is administered in a dosing unit, for example a gelatin capsule. The number of gelatin capsules administered each day of a booster program can be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, or more. A prebiotic composition can be administered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more times a day during a booster program. In some embodiments, a prebiotic composition (e.g. a GOS composition) is administered once per day during a booster program. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95) is administered twice per day during a booster program. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95) is administered once per day for days 1 - 5 of a booster program and twice per day for days 6 - 10 of a booster program.

E. Modulating psychological aversion to dairy products

[0310] In one embodiment a subject has a psychological aversion to the consumption of dairy products. In one embodiment the subject's psychological aversion is caused by the experience of one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance when the subject consumes a dairy product. In one embodiment, a subject has a psychological aversion to a dairy product because the subject is aware the dairy product contains lactose. In another embodiment, a subject has a psychological aversion to a dairy product because the subject is aware the dairy product contains lactose, and the subject previously personally experienced one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance when the subject consumed the dairy product. In another embodiment, a subject has a psychological aversion to a dairy product because the subject is aware the dairy product contains lactose, and the subject is aware that a genetically related person previously experienced one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance when the genetically related person consumed the dairy product. In one embodiment, a method of treating psychological aversion of a subject to intake of dairy products is provided comprising administering a prebiotic composition to said subject. In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of GOS. In another embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises a high perecentage of GOS.In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of GOS and one or more probiotics. In one embodiment, a subject does not have a psychological aversion to ingesting or consuming a prebiotic composition. In one embodiment, a subject does not have a psychological aversion to ingesting or consuming GOS.

[0311] In one embodiment, a subject with a psychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebiotic composition to modulate the psychological aversion to dairy products. In another embodiment, a subject with a psychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of GOS to modulate the psychological aversion to dairy products. In another embodiment, a subject with a psychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of GOS and a probiotic to modulate the psychological aversion to dairy products. In one embodiment, the modulation is a decrease in psychological aversion of the subject to dairy products. In another embodiment, the modulation of the psychological aversion can result in an increase in consumption of dairy products by the subject. In another embodiment, modulation of the psychological aversion can result in increased blood calcium levels or bone density in the subject. In one embodiment, the subject is a preterm newborn, a full term newborn, an infant up to one year of age, a young child (e.g., 1 yr to 12 yrs), a teenager, (e.g., 13-19 yrs), an adult (e.g., 20-64 yrs), an elderly adult (65 yrs and older), a pregnant women, a man or a woman. In one embodiment, the subject is at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 1060, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, or 120 years old. In one embodiment, the subject is an elderly adult. In another embodiment, the subject has osteoporosis. In another embodiment, the subject has low bone density. In another embodiment, the subject is an elderly adult who has osteoporosis. In another embodiment, the subject is a woman over the age of about 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, or 120 years old. In another embodiment, the woman is a postmenopausal woman. In another embodiment a subject with a psychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprising GOS, which modulates the subject's aversion to psychological aversion to dairy products. In another embodiment a subject with a psychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprising GOS, which reduces the subject's aversion to psychological aversion to dairy products. In another embodiment a subject with a psychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprising GOS, which inhibits the subject's aversion to psychological aversion to dairy products. In another embodiment an a subject with a psychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprising GOS, which modulates the subject's aversion to psychological aversion to dairy products by decreasing one or more symptom's of lactose intolerance. In another embodiment an a subject with a psychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprising GOS, which modulates the subject's aversion to psychological aversion to dairy products by decreasing one or more symptom's of lactose intolerance and leading to increased consumption of dairy products by the subject. In one embodiment increased consumption of dairy products by the subject results in increased calcium consumption by the subject. In another embodiment increased consumption of dairy products by the subject results increases the bone density of the subject. F. Nutritional deficiency

[0312] A subject that has one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance and/or a psychological aversion to dairy products restricts his or her diet, which can result in a nutrition shortage and/or disease. Milk and other lactose containing dairy products are a source of nutrients in the American diet, including protein, calcium, riboflavin, vitamin A, and vitamin D. Studies have linked a sufficient daily intake of calcium and vitamin D with reduced incidence of type 2 diabetes. Intake recommendations for calcium are provided in the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) which were developed by the Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine for the National Academies. If a subject restricts intake of dairy products, e.g., because of lactose intolerance or psychological aversion to dairy products, the individual can become hypocalcemic. Hypocalcaemia is the presence of low serum calcium levels in the blood. Long term hypocalcaemia can result in bone loss, osteoporosis, hypertension, and/or weak bone density. Other symptoms of hypocalcaemia include petechia; oral, perioral, and acral parasthesias; carpopedal and generalized tetany; largent tetany; hyperactive tendon reflexes; laryngospasm; and cardiac arrhythmias. Petechiae are small red or purple spots on the body caused by a minor hemorrhage (i.e. broken capillary blood vessels. Paresthesias are a tingling sensation, often in the mouth, lips and extremities of the hands and feet. Tetany is the involuntary contraction of muscles, which can be caused by the inability of muscle fibers to depolarize due to low calcium levels in the blood. Laryngospasms are particularly dangerous form of tetany where the contraction of laryngeal cords can result in a partial blockage of the breathing canal. Cardiac arrhythmia, which is caused by abnormal electrical activity in the heart, encompasses any abnormal heart beat pattern. The heart beat may be too fast, too slow, or irregularly timed. Long QT syndrome is an arrhythmia that can be acquired due to hypocalcaemia.

[0313] In one embodiment, a subject that restricts his or her intake of dairy products because of lactose intolerance or psychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebiotic composition to modulate the restriction of dairy products. In another embodiment, a subject that restricts his or her intake of dairy products because of lactose intolerance or psychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a GOS to modulate the restriction of dairy products. In another embodiment, a subject that restricts his or her intake of dairy products because of lactose intolerance or psychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a GOS and one or more probiotics to modulate restriction of dairy products. In one embodiment, the modulation comprises an increase in consumption of dairy products. In one embodiment, the subject is a preterm newborn, a full term newborn, an infant up to one year of age, a young child (e.g., 1 yr to 12 yrs), a teenager, (e.g., 13-19 yrs), an adult (e.g., 20-64 yrs), an elderly adult (65 yrs and older) a pregnant women, a man or a woman. In one embodiment, the subject is at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 1060, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, or 120 years old. In one embodiment, the subject is an elderly adult. In another embodiment, the subject has osteoporosis. In another embodiment, the subject has low bone density. In another embodiment, the subject is an elderly adult who has osteoporosis. In another embodiment, the subject is a woman over the age of about 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, or 120 years old. In another embodiment, the woman is a postmenopausal woman. In another embodiment, the subject is a woman with osteoporosis over the age of about 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, or 120 years old. In another embodiment, the woman is postmenopausal.

[0314] Osteoporosis is a condition in which the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced in a subject. Bone density can be determined using, e.g., dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA or DEXA), ultrasound, quantitative computerized tomography (CT) scanning, or single-photon absorptiometry. Bones in a subject with osteoporosis can become brittle; mild stresses, such as coughing, or falls, can result in a bone fracture. A man or a woman can have osteoporosis. Signs and symptoms of osteoporosis can include, e.g., back pain, loss of height over time, fracture of the vertebra, hip, wrist, or other bone, or a stooped posture. In one embodiment a person with low bone density or osteoporosis comprises a postmenopausal woman with at least one risk factor for osteoporosis, a woman older than 65 years old, a man over 70 years old, a man between the age of 50 to 70 who has at least one osteoporosis risk factor, a woman who experienced early menopause, a postmenopausal woman who has recently stopped taking hormone therapy, a person older than 50 with a history of a broken bone, or a person who takes medications, such as prednisone, aromatase inhibitors, or anti-seizure drugs, that are associated with osteoporosis (see, e.g., www.mayoclinic.com/health/osteoporosis/DS00128). Risk factors for osteoporosis can include, e.g., low calcium intake, tobacco use, eating disorders (e.g., anorexia nervosa or bulimia), sedentary lifestyle (e.g., lack of walking, running, jumping, dancing, and weightlifting), excessive alcohol consumption, long-term use of corticosteroid medications (e.g., prednisone, cortisone, prednisolone and dexamethasone), long-term use of aromatase inhibitors, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), methotrexate, some anti-seizure medications, proton- pump inhibitors, or aluminum containing antacids. Some medications have been associated with an increased risk of osteoporosis, including, e.g., barbiturates, L-thyroxine over-replacement, depot preogesterone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist, anticoagulants (e.g., warfarin), thiazolidinediones (e.g., rosiglitazone, inhibitors of PPARy), and chronic lithium therapy.

[0315] Diseases and disorders can be associated with osteoporosis. A hypogonadal state, e.g., Kallmann syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Turner syndrome, anorexia nervosa, andropause, hyperprolactinemia, hypothalamic amenorrhea, bilateral oophorectomy (surgical removal of the ovaries), premature ovarian failure, or testosterone deficiency (e.g., andropause or after surgical removal of the testes) can cause secondary osteoporosis. Endocrine disorders that can induce bone loss include, e.g., acromegaly, adrenal insufficiency, Cushing's syndrome, diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2, hyperparathyroidism, hypothyroidism, and thyrotoxicosis. Reversible bone loss can also occur during lactation and pregnancy.

[0316] Malnutrition, parenteral nutrition and malabsorption can lead to osteoporosis. Nutritional and gastrointestinal disorders that can predispose a subject to osteoporosis include, e.g., coeliac disease, Crohn's disease, lactose intolerance, severe liver disease (e.g., primary biliary cirrhosis), and surgery (e.g., after gastrectomy, intestinal bypass surgery, or bowel resection). A subject with an adequate calcium intake can develop osteoporosis due to the inability to absorb calcium and/or vitamin D.

[0317] Subjects with rheumatologic disorders, e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis are at increased risk of osteoporosis, e.g., as part of their disease or because of other risk factors (e.g., corticosteroid therapy). Systemic diseases such as amyloidosis and sarcoidosis can also lead to osteoporosis. Renal insufficiency can lead to osteodystrophy. Hematologic disorders linked to osteoporosis can include, e.g., hemophilia, lymphoma, leukemia, mastocytosis, multiple myeloma, other monoclonal gammopathies, sickle-cell disease and thalassemia.

[0318] Inherited disorders linked to osteoporosis include, e.g., Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, epidermolysis bullosa, Gaucher's disease, glycogen storage diseases, hemochromatosis, hypophosphatasia, homocystinuria, osteogenesis imperfecta, Marfan syndrome, Menkes' syndrome, and porphyria, [0319] A subject with scoliosis can have a higher risk of osteoporosis. Bone loss can be a feature of complex regional pain syndrome. Accelerated bone loss can be found in subjects with Parkinson's disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

[0320] In one embodiment, a person that has one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance and/or a psychological aversion to dairy products and who has low bone density, osteoporosis, a sign or symptom of osteoporosis, or a risk factor for osteoporosis, is administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebiotic composition to modulate restriction of dairy products. In another embodiment, a person that has one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance and/or a psychological aversion to dairy products and who has low bone density, osteoporosis, a sign or symptom of osteoporosis, or a risk factor for osteoporosis, is administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a GOS to modulate restriction of dairy products. In one embodiment, a person that has one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance and/or a psychological aversion to dairy products and who has low bone density, osteoporosis, a sign or symptom of osteoporosis, or a risk factor for osteoporosis, is administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a GOS and a probiotic to modulate the restriction of dairy products. In one embodiment, the modulation of restriction of dairy products comprises an increase in dairy product consumption.

[0321] Medications that can help slow bone loss and/or maintain bone mass include, for example, antiresorptive agents (e.g., bisphosphonates (e.g., alendronate (Fosamax), ibandronate (Boniva), risedronate (Actonel) and zoledronic acid (Reclast), estrogen analogs, selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMS) (e.g., raloxifene (Evista)), and calcitonin). Medications that can help slow bone loss and/or maintain bone mass include, for example, bone anabolic agents, e.g., teriparatide (Forteo), calcium salts, and sodium fluoride. Medications that can help slow bone loss and/or maintain bone mass include, for example, RANKL inhibitors (e.g., denosumab), strontium ranelate, calcium, and vitamin D.

[0322] Hormone therapy, exercise, and physical therapy can be used to help slow bone loss and maintain bone mass.

[0323] In one embodiment, a person with lactose intolerance and who has low bone density, osteoporosis, a sign or symptom of osteoporosis, or a risk factor for osteoporosis, can be administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebiotic composition to modulate restriction of dairy products, and one more or medications to slow bone loss and/or maintain bone mass comprising an antiresorptive agent or bone anabolic agent. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises GOS and further comprises a probiotic.

[0324] In one embodiment, a person with lactose intolerance and who has low bone density, osteoporosis, a sign or symptom of osteoporosis, or a risk factor for osteoporosis, is administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebiotic composition to modulate restriction of dairy products, and can undergo hormone therapy, exercise, or physical therapy to slow bone loss and/or maintain bone mass. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises GOS and further comprises a probiotic.

[0325] In one embodiment, a person with lactose intolerance and who has low bone density, osteoporosis, a sign or symptom of osteoporosis, or a risk factor for osteoporosis, is administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebiotic composition to modulate restriction of dairy products, and can undergo hormone therapy, exercise, or physical therapy and/or be administered one or more medications to slow bone loss and/or maintain bone mass. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises GOS and further comprises a probiotic.

[0326] Long QT syndrome (LQT) is so named because of the prolongation of the QT interval seen on electrocardiograms of affected individuals. It is caused by a delayed repolarization of heart muscle fibers following contraction and can manifest as episodes of irregular heartbeat, known as torsade de pointes (TDP). Episodes of TDP may lead to palpitations, fainting, and sudden death. LQT has been linked to an increased risk of sudden death during increased adrenergic states due to, for example, exercise or excitement. Several gene mutations have been identified as risk factors for LQT. Acquired cases of LQT include drugs, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, and hypocalcaemia, among others. Multiple risk factors may interplay in precipitating TDP episodes, highlighting the importance of combinatorial therapeutics.

[0327] Treatment for LQT involves two options: arrhythmia prevention and arrhythmia termination. Beta blockers decreases the risk of stress induced arrhythmias and are a common treatment for LQT. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD) can be used in conjunction with blocker treatment as a method of terminating arrhythmias when they occur.

[0328] In one embodiment, a person with lactose intolerance and who has long QT syndrome is administered a therapeutic composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebiotic composition to modulate restriction of dairy products and can be treated by beta blockers to prevent episodes of arrhythmia and/or implanted with an ICD to terminate or decrease the duration of TDP episodes.

G. Treatment regimens

[0329] In one embodiment, treatment with a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), optionally in conjunction with a probiotic composition, one or more digestible saccharides, a buffer, or a combination thereof, is used in combination with other treatments to reduce the symptoms of lactose intolerance. Any suitable treatment for the reduction of symptoms of lactose intolerance can be used, e.g., the use of lactase. In another embodiment lactase is administered before, during, or after treatment with a prebiotic composition, or any combination thereof. In one embodiment, when symptoms of lactose intolerance are not completely or substantially completely eliminated by treatment with a prebiotic composition, lactase is administered after prebiotic treatment is terminated. The lactase is used on an as-needed basis.

[0330] In one embodiment a subject to be treated for one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance is a human. In one embodiment the human subject is a preterm newborn, a full term newborn, an infant up to one year of age, a young child (e.g., 1 yr to 12 yrs), a teenager, (e.g., 13-19 yrs), an adult (e.g., 20-64 yrs), a pregnant women, an elderly adult (65 yrs and older), a male or a female.

[0331] In some embodiments, a subject experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance is diagnosed with a lactose intolerance diagnostic device or test prior to or concurrently with the beginning of a treatment regimen. In one embodiment, a test for lactose intolerance is a hydrogen breath test. In the hydrogen breath test, the breath is measured to determine the amount of hydrogen produced after consuming a measured amount of lactose. The amount of lactose consumed can be about 1 g, 2 g, 3 g, 4 g, 5 g, 6 g, 7 g, 8 g, 9 g, 10 g, 11 g, 12 g, 13 g, 14 g, 15 g, 16 g, 17 g, 18 g, 19 g, 20 g, 21 g, 22 g, 23 g, 24 g, 25 g, 26 g, 27 g, 28 g, 29 g, 30 g, 31 g, 32 g, 33 g, 34 g, 35 g, 36 g, 37 g, 38 g, 39 g, 40 g, or more. In one embodiment, the amount of lactose consumed is about 15g. The lactose is administered by drinking a lactose mixture, and the subject exhales into a vacuum- sealed collection tube at three one hour time intervals. A high level of hydrogen in the breath indicates an improper digestion of lactose. An increase in hydrogen breath of greater than 5 ppm, 6 ppm, 7 ppm, 8 ppm, 9 ppm, 10 ppm, 11 ppm, 12 ppm, 13 ppm, 14 ppm, 15 ppm, 16 ppm, 17 ppm, 18 ppm, 19 ppm, 20 ppm, 21 ppm, 22 ppm, 23 ppm, 24 ppm, 25 ppm, 26 ppm, 27 ppm, 28 ppm, 29 ppm, 30 ppm, 31 ppm, 32 ppm, 33 ppm, 34 ppm, 35 ppm, 36 ppm, 37 ppm, 38 ppm, 39 ppm, 40 ppm, or more can indicated a subject has lactose intolerance. In one embodiment, an increase in hydrogen breath of 12 ppm can indicate a subject has lactose intolerance. In another embodiment, an increase in hydrogen breath of 15 ppm can indicate a subject has lactose intolerance. In one embodiment, an increase in hydrogen breath of greater than 20 ppm indicates a subject has lactose intolerance. In another embodiment, a lactose intolerance diagnostic device is a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire wherein a subject rates the severity of exemplary symptoms of lactose intolerance. In one embodiment, the symptoms are rated on a scale of 0 to 5, wherein 0 indicates no symptoms, 1 indicates slight symptoms, 2 indicates mild symptoms, 3 indicates moderate symptoms, 4 indicates moderately severe symptoms, and 5 indicates severe symptoms. In one embodiment, the symptoms include abdominal pain/cramps, bloating, flatulence, diarrhea and/or nausea/upset stomach. In one embodiment, a questionnaire can be filled out after a lactose challenge. In another embodiment, a questionnaire can be filled out after a milk challenge. In another embodiment, a questionnaire can be filled out without a challenge. In one embodiment, a single score of 4 or 5 indicates a subject has lactose intolerance. In another embodiment, two or more scores of 3 or greater indicates a subject has lactose intolerance. In another embodiment, a score of 3 or greater for a single symptom at two different timepoints indicates a subject has lactose intolerance. In another embodiment, a change in the average scores over time is used to evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment regimen. In some embodiments, a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire is given in conjuction with a hydrogen breath test or lactose challenge with, for example, about 1 g, 2 g, 3 g, 4 g, 5 g, 6 g, 7 g, 8 g, 9 g, 10 g, 11 g, 12 g, 13 g, 14 g, 15 g, 16 g, 17 g, 18 g, 19 g, 20 g, 21 g, 22 g, 23 g, 24 g, 25 g, 26 g, 27 g, 28 g, 29 g, 30 g, 31 g, 32 g, 33 g, 34 g, 35 g, 36 g, 37 g, 38 g, 39 g, 40 g, or more of lactose consumed. In some embodiments, a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire is given in conjuction with a milk challenge involving the consumption of about 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4 or more cups of milk.

[0332] In one embodiment, a treatment regimens lasts, for about 1-20 days, about 1- 25 days, about 1-30 days, about 1-35 days, about 1-40 days, about 1-45 days, about 1-50 days, about 5-30 days, about 5-35 days, about 5-40 days, about 5-45 days, about 5-50 days, about 5-55 days, about 5-60 days, or about 5-90 days. In another embodiment a treatment regimen lasts exactly or about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, or 90 days. In one embodiment the amount of each dose in a treatment regimen is constant. For example, a constant dose of prebiotics can be administered each day to a subject for the duration of the treatment regimens described above. In one embodiment the dosing regimen is a constant 0.1-20 g of prebiotic per day. In another embodiment the dosing regimen can be an escalating regimen, for example, 2 g of prebiotic on day 1 and 20 g of prebiotic on day 14 or day 20. In one embodiment the dose escalates by about 0.1 g, 0.2 g, 0.3 g, 0.4 g , 0.5 g, 0.6 g, 0.7 g, 0.8 g, 0.9g, l.Og, l.lg, 1.2 g, 1.3 g, 1.4 g, 1.5 g, 1.6 g, 1.7 g, 1.8 g, 1.9 g, 2.0 g, 2.1 g, 2.2 g, 2.3 g, 2.4 g, 2.5 g, 2.6 g, 2.7 g, 2.8 g, 2.9 g, 3.0 g, 3.1 g, 3.2 g, 3.3 g, 3.4 g, 3.5 g, 3.6 g, 3.7 g, 3.8 g, 3.9 g, 4.0 g, 4.1 g, 4.2 g, 4.3 g, 4.4 g, 4.5 g, 4.6 g, 4.7 g, 4.8 g, 4.9 g, or 5.0 g per day. The dosing regimen can include between 0.1 and 20 g of prebiotic per day. The regimen can also include escalating the number of doses per day, for example, 1 dose per day, 2 doses per day, 3 doses per day, 4 doses per day, 5 doses per day, 6 doses per day, 7 doses per day, 8 doses per day, 9 doses per day, or 10 doses per day. For example, 1 dose per day is administered on day 1, 2 doses per day on day 10, and 3 doses per day on day 14 or day 20 of a treatment regimen.

[0333] In one embodiment, the treatment occurs in phases. One phase utilizes a single administration of a prebiotic composition per day, generally though not necessarily with food, e.g., dinner. The dose of a prebiotic composition increases over time. For example, the dose of a prebiotic composition can increase each day. Another phase, generally following the first phase, utilizes two administrations of a prebiotic composition per day, again, generally with food, e.g., with breakfast and dinner. Again, during this phase the dose of a composition comprising a prebiotic increases over time, e.g., increasing each day. In one embodiment, the treatment includes one phase in which a composition comprising a prebiotic composition is administered once per day in conjunction with a probiotic (e.g., live bacteria). This phase, if used, is generally the first phase of the method.

[0334] Optionally a probiotic microbe(s) is administered during some or all of the entire period of treatment. For example, in one embodiment, a probiotic is included in a prebiotic-containing product that is administered to a subject. Typically, during the preceding phases no dairy products are consumed. A final phase of the protocol can involve the gradual reintroduction of dairy into the diet, either with or without the continuing use of the prebiotic composition used in the first phases of treatment. Finally, treatment is concluded and no further ingestion of a prebiotic composition is required.

[0335] In another embodiment the dosing regimen comprises five phases. The first phase comprises administration of a prebiotic composition for two days, optionally with a probiotic. In the second phase, a prebiotic composition is taken with food once a day (e.g., breakfast, lunch, or dinner) for a period of about 10 to 30 days, or about 14 to 24 days, or about 16 to 20 days, or about 18 days. In the third phase, a prebiotic composition is taken twice a day with food (e.g., both breakfast and dinner) for another period of about 6 to 18 days, or about 8 to 16 days, or about 10 to 14 days, or about 12 days. For the fourth phase lasting another 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 days (e.g., about 4 days) thereafter, a prebiotic composition is administered with both dinner and breakfast, along with the addition of a lactose containing product (e.g., a dairy product). Prior to this time, dairy products are not administered during the first phases, e.g., the first about 30-34 days of the regimen. This total period, e.g., of approximately 38 days, can constitute the full period in which a prebiotic composition is administered, but more importantly administered essentially in these time periods. In one embodiment, following the actual administration of a prebiotic composition, the regimen optionally includes a fifth phase: the actual ingestion of dairy products every few days to maintain and build up tolerance to lactose, but without the administration of a prebiotic composition (to test the establishment of lactose tolerance). If lactose tolerance is not established, the regimen can be repeated. In the first period of time, through the first, roughly 18 days, the amount of a prebiotic composition administered at dinner time increases regularly each day. Thereafter, and in the third period, a prebiotic composition is administered regularly each day in combination with a breakfast meal. Moreover, and for the final days, e.g., the final four days, a lactose containing food item, such as milk, also is regularly increased for those 4 days.

[0336] If an initial treatment regimen is successful in generating lactose tolerance in a lactose intolerant person, and the lactose intolerance recurs, one or more treatment regimens can be repeated.

[0337] In one embodiment, a first dose of a prebiotic composition is administered in increasing amounts for a 6-week period. On the first and second days of this period, probiotic bacteria comprising one or more strains of bacteria (e.g., in a food containing product also having a live culture bacteria) is administered with the prebiotic composition. One such food item containing live cultured bacteria is yogurt. Further, during the third phase during this 6- week period, a second dose of a prebiotic composition (such as a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) is administered, typically at breakfast time.

[0338] In one embodiment a prebiotic composition and a probiotic composition are administered to a subject in need thereof. In one embodiment, in the first day of the regimen, a subject ingests 8 ounces (about 226.4 g) or less of a probiotic composition along with 1 tablespoon (about 14.8 mL) of a prebiotic composition, at the dinner meal. In one embodiment, a subject in need thereof will ingest 8 ounces (about 226.4 g) or less of a probiotic composition on the first day, along with 1 tablespoon (about 14.8 mL) of a prebiotic composition with dinner. On the second day, the amount of the yogurt ingested is reduced by half to 4 ounces (about 113.2 g) or less of a probiotic composition, although the administration of the a prebiotic composition remains the same. On the third day, administration of the probiotic composition is stopped, but administration of a prebiotic composition remains at 1 tablespoon (about 14.8 mL). During the 4th through the 18th days, the amount of a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) ingested with dinner is increased by 1 tablespoon (about 14.8 mL) each day until 16 tablespoons (about 237 mL) are reached on the day 18.

[0339] In the third phase of the regimen, both 1 tablespoon (about 14.8 mL) of a prebiotic composition (such as a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) is ingested in the morning, with breakfast, and 16 tablespoons (about 237 mL) of a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) are ingested with dinner. From day 16 until day 34, the same ratio of a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) with dinner is maintained, but the morning dose increases daily at a rate of a tablespoon (about 14.8 mL) per day. In this way, by day 34, the subject in need thereof is ingesting 32 tablespoons (about 474 mL) of a prebiotic composition (such as a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS).

[0340] On day 35, ingestion of the a prebiotic composition (such as a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) is discontinued and in place thereof, a dairy product such as milk (without prebiotic composition) is ingested, with 9 ounces (about 255 g) of milk in the morning and an additional 9 ounces (about 255 g) in the evening. The milk amounts are increased incrementally at a rate of an ounce (about 28.3 g) per day, such that, by day 38, the subject is ingesting 12 ounces (about 340 g) of milk with breakfast and an additional 12 ounces (about 340 g) of milk at dinner. Optionally, on days 39 through 42, cheese is substituted for milk.

[0341] In another embodiment the number of days in which a prebiotic or probiotic composition is administered can vary, and the quantity of the dosages can similarly be modified according to the needs of a particular subject and the symptoms of the subject. Even though there can be variations in both the time period and the dosage rates, the concept of increasing the dosages of a prebiotic composition for specific time periods is maintained and encompassed by the methods herein.

[0342] In another embodiment a subject in need thereof can ingest more than 5 tablespoons (about 74 mL) of a prebiotic composition by day 7. As a result, the amount of a prebiotic composition ingested by day 7 can be increased to 6 tablespoons (about 89 mL) on day 8. Determination of whether or not the subject is capable of increasing the dosage or the time period depends on whether or not the subject encounters any adverse affects. [0343] The same alterations can be made in the time intervals between the administration of a prebiotic composition and a lactose containing food item. Thus, if desired, the subject in need thereof could potentially alter the amount of a prebiotic composition every 12 hours. In like manner, that time period could vary to 36 or even 48 hours. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition is administered in a powder formulation of a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), the latter of which can be mixed with water and administered much in the same manner as a soft drink. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition is incorporated in one or more capsules, capsules, or gels, as indicated. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition is supplied in a liquid formulation for oral administration.

[0344] In one embodiment a subject in need thereof is treated with a regimen using a powdered prebiotic composition using a dosing schedule as set forth in Figures 5, 6, or 7. For Figures 5 and 6, 70% GOS refers to a GOS composition comprising 70% by weight GOS, about 20% by weight lactose, and 10 % by weight digestible saccharides. In Figure 5, a prebiotic composition contains a GOS composition (starting at 0.5 g and increased to 8.00 g over 34 days) with 0 % by weight additional lactose. For example, the amount of 70% GOS composition administered can be about 0.5 g, 1 g, 1.5 g, 2 g, 2.5 g, 3 g, 3.5 g, 4 g, 4.5 g, 5 g, 5.5 g, 6 g, 6.5 g, 7 g, 7.5 g, or 8.0 g. In Figure 6, a prebiotic composition contains a 70% GOS composition (starting at 0.29 g and increased to 4.69 g over 34 days) with additional lactose (starting at 0.33 g and increased to 5.3 g over 34 days). For example, the amount of 70% GOS composition administered can be about 0.29 g, 0.59 g, 0.88 g, 1.17 g, 1.46 g, 1.76 g, 2.05 g, 2.34 g, 2.64 g, 2.93 g, 3.22 g, 3.52 g, 3.81 g, 4.10 g, 4.39 g, or 4.69 g. In Figure 7, the 90% GOS are a GOS composition comprising 90% by weight GOS and 10 % by weight digestible saccharides. In this figure, a prebiotic composition contains a GOS composition (starting at 0.42 g and increased to 6.74 g over 34 days) with 0 % by weight additional lactose. For example, the amount of 90% GOS composition administered can be about 0.42 g, 0.84 g, 1.26 g, 1.68 g, 2.11 g, 2.53 g, 2.95 g, 3.37 g, 3.79 g, 4.21 g, 4.63 g, 5.05 g, 5.47 g, 5.89 g, 6.32 g, or 6.74 g. In Figure 8, the 93% GOS composition is a GOS composition comprising 90% by weight GOS (starting at 0.42 g and increased to 6.74 g over 34 days). For example, the amount of 93% GOS composition administered can be about 0.42 g, 0.84 g, 1.26 g, 1.68 g, 2.11 g, 2.53 g, 2.95 g, 3.37 g, 3.79 g, 4.21 g, 4.63 g, 5.05 g, 5.47 g, 5.89 g, 6.32 g, or 6.74 g. In Figure 9, the 95% GOS composition is a GOS composition comprising 95% by weight GOS. For example, the amount of 95% GOS composition administered can be about 0.42 g, 0.84 g, 1.26 g, 1.68 g, 2.11 g, 2.53 g, 2.95 g, 3.37 g, 3.79 g, 4.21 g, 4.63 g, 5.05 g, 5.47 g, 5.89 g, 6.32 g, or 6.74 g. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition contains a GOS composition (starting at a certain amount and increasing to a maximum amount over 34 days) with additional lactose (starting at a certain amount and increasing to a maximum amount over 34 days). In one embodiment a capsule containing GOS composition powder, is administered to a subject in need thereof. At day 34, the subject in need thereof has completed the protocol and can now enjoy dairy products pain-free. In one embodiment, no future protocol, supplements, or medication is needed for these subjects in need thereof to consume dairy products. In another embodiment, the protocol is re-administered as needed.

[0345] In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition is administered in a 16 day program. Examples of 16 day programs are shown in Tables 8, 9, and 10. Milk can be provided to the subject after completion of the 16 day program.

TABLE 8: TWO EXAMPLES OF 16 DAY TREATMENT PROGRAMS.

Low High

PM dose AM dose (g PM dose AM dose

(g of GOS) of GOS) (g of GOS) (g of GOS)

Day 1 1.50 1.50 Day 1 1.50 1.50

Day 2 1.50 1.50 Day 2 1.50 1.50

Day 3 1.50 1.50 Day 3 1.50 1.50

Day 4 1.50 1.50 Day 4 1.50 1.50

Day 5 1.50 1.50 Day 5 3.00 3.00

Day 6 1.50 1.50 Day 6 3.00 3.00

Day 7 1.50 1.50 Day 7 3.00 3.00

Day 8 1.50 1.50 Day 8 3.00 3.00

Day 9 3.00 3.00 Day 9 4.50 4.50

Day 10 3.00 3.00 Day 10 4.50 4.50

Day 11 3.00 3.00 Day 11 4.50 4.50

Day 12 3.00 3.00 Day 12 4.50 4.50

Day 13 3.00 3.00 Day 13 6.00 6.00

Day 14 3.00 3.00 Day 14 6.00 6.00

Day 15 3.00 3.00 Day 15 6.00 6.00

Day 16 3.00 3.00 Day 16 6.00 6.00

8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk

10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk

12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk TABLE 9: TWO EXAMPLES OF 16 DAY TREATMENT PROGRAMS.

PM dose AM dose (g PM dose AM dose (g of GOS) of GOS) (g of GOS) (g of GOS)

Day 1 0.40 0.40 Day 1 1.20 1.20

Day 2 0.80 0.80 Day 2 1.20 1.20

Day 3 1.20 1.20 Day 3 1.20 1.20

Day 4 1.60 1.60 Day 4 3.00 3.00

Day 5 2.00 2.00 Day 5 3.00 3.00

Day 6 2.40 2.40 Day 6 3.00 3.00

Day 7 2.80 2.80 Day 7 3.00 3.00

Day 8 3.20 3.20 Day 8 4.60 4.60

Day 9 3.60 3.60 Day 9 4.60 4.60

Day 10 4.00 4.00 Day 10 4.60 4.60

Day 11 4.40 4.40 Day 11 4.60 4.60

Day 12 4.80 4.80 Day 12 6.10 6.10

Day 13 5.20 5.20 Day 13 6.10 6.10

Day 14 5.60 5.60 Day 14 6.10 6.10

Day 15 6.00 6.00 Day 15 6.10 6.10

Day 16 6.40 6.40 Day 16 6.10 6.10

8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk

10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk

12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk

TABLE 10: EXAMPLE OF A 16 DAY TREATMENT PROGRAM

PM dose AM dose (g of

(g of GOS) GOS)

Day 1 3.00

Day 2 3.00

Day 3 3.00

Day 4 3.00 3.00

Day 5 3.00 3.00

Day 6 3.00 3.00

Day 7 3.00 3.00

Day 8 4.60 4.60 PM dose AM dose (g of

(g of GOS) GOS)

Day 9 4.60 4.60

Day 10 4.60 4.60

Day 11 4.60 4.60

Day 12 6.10 6.10

Day 13 6.10 6.10

Day 14 6.10 6.10

Day 15 6.10 6.10

Day 16 6.10 6.10

8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk

10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk

12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk

[0346] In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is administered during a 30 or 34 day treatment program. Examples of 30 and 34 day treatment programs are shown in Tables 11, 12, and 13. Milk is provided after the treatment program.

TABLE 11. TWO EXAMPLES OF 30 DAY TREATMENT PROGRAMS.

Low High

PM dose (g AM dose PM dose AM dose (g of GOS) (g of GOS) (g of GOS) of GOS)

Day 1 1.50 1.50 Day 1 3.00

Day 2 1.50 1.50 Day 2 3.00

Day 3 1.50 1.50 Day 3 3.00

Day 4 1.50 1.50 Day 4 3.00 3.00

Day 5 1.50 1.50 Day 5 3.00 3.00

Day 6 1.50 1.50 Day 6 3.00 3.00

Day 7 1.50 1.50 Day 7 3.00 3.00

Day 8 1.50 1.50 Day 8 3.00 3.00

Day 9 1.50 1.50 Day 9 3.00 3.00

Day 10 1.50 1.50 Day 10 3.00 3.00

Day 11 1.50 1.50 Day 11 4.60 4.60 Low High

PM dose (g AM dose PM dose AM dose (g of GOS) (g of GOS) (g of GOS) of GOS)

Day 12 1.50 1.50 Day 12 4.60 4.60

Day 13 1.50 1.50 Day 13 4.60 4.60

Day 14 1.50 1.50 Day 14 4.60 4.60

Day 15 1.50 1.50 Day 15 4.60 4.60

Day 16 3.00 3.00 Day 16 4.60 4.60

Day 17 3.00 3.00 Day 17 4.60 4.60

Day 18 3.00 3.00 Day 18 4.60 4.60

Day 19 3.00 3.00 Day 19 4.60 4.60

Day 20 3.00 3.00 Day 20 4.60 4.60

Day 21 3.00 3.00 Day 21 6.10 6.10

Day 22 3.00 3.00 Day 22 6.10 6.10

Day 23 3.00 3.00 Day 23 6.10 6.10

Day 24 3.00 3.00 Day 24 6.10 6.10

Day 25 3.00 3.00 Day 25 6.10 6.10

Day 26 3.00 3.00 Day 26 6.10 6.10

Day 27 3.00 3.00 Day 27 6.10 6.10

Day 28 3.00 3.00 Day 28 6.10 6.10

Day 29 3.00 3.00 Day 29 6.10 6.10

Day 30 3.00 3.00 Day 30 6.10 6.10

8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk

10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk

12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk

TABLE 12. EXAMPLES OF A 30 AND 34 DAY TREATMENT PROGRAM.

PM dose AM dose (g PM dose AM dose

(g of GOS) of GOS) (g of GOS) (g of GOS)

Day 1 1.20 Day 1 0.40

Day 2 1.20 Day 2 0.40

Day 3 1.20 Day 3 0.40

TABLE 13. EXAMPLES OF 30 DAY TREATMENT PROGRAMS.

PM dose AM dose (g PM dose AM dose (g of GOS) of GOS) (g of GOS) (g of GOS)

Day 1 1.20 1.20 Day 1 3.00

Day 2 1.20 1.20 Day 2 3.00

Day 3 1.20 1.20 Day 3 3.00

Day 4 1.20 1.20 Day 4 3.00 3.00

Day 5 1.20 1.20 Day 5 3.00 3.00

Day 6 1.20 1.20 Day 6 3.00 3.00

Day 7 1.20 1.20 Day 7 3.00 3.00

Day 8 3.00 3.00 Day 8 3.00 3.00

Day 9 3.00 3.00 Day 9 3.00 3.00

Day 10 3.00 3.00 Day 10 3.00 3.00

Day 11 3.00 3.00 Day 11 4.60 4.60

Day 12 3.00 3.00 Day 12 4.60 4.60

Day 13 3.00 3.00 Day 13 4.60 4.60

Day 14 3.00 3.00 Day 14 4.60 4.60

Day 15 4.60 4.60 Day 15 4.60 4.60

Day 16 4.60 4.60 Day 16 4.60 4.60

Day 17 4.60 4.60 Day 17 4.60 4.60

Day 18 4.60 4.60 Day 18 4.60 4.60

Day 19 4.60 4.60 Day 19 4.60 4.60

Day 20 4.60 4.60 Day 20 4.60 4.60

Day 21 4.60 4.60 Day 21 6.10 6.10

Day 22 6.10 6.10 Day 22 6.10 6.10

Day 23 6.10 6.10 Day 23 6.10 6.10

Day 24 6.10 6.10 Day 24 6.10 6.10

Day 25 6.10 6.10 Day 25 6.10 6.10

Day 26 6.10 6.10 Day 26 6.10 6.10

Day 27 6.10 6.10 Day 27 6.10 6.10

Day 28 6.10 6.10 Day 28 6.10 6.10

Day 29 6.10 6.10 Day 29 6.10 6.10 PM dose AM dose (g PM dose AM dose

(g of GOS) of GOS) (g of GOS) (g of GOS)

Day 30 6.10 6.10 Day 30 6.10 6.10

8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk 8 oz Milk

10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk

12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk

[0347] In one embodiment dosages of a prebiotic are administered to a subject in gelatin caps "00", which can hold between 0.546 - 1.092 g (e.g., of powder); gelatin caps "0", which can hold between 0.408-0.816 g (e.g., of powder), and gelatin caps "#1", which can hold between 0.300 and 0.600 g (e.g. of powder). In another embodiment, approximately 3 g of prebiotic composition is administered to a subject in three gelatin cap 00 pills. In another embodiment, approximately 1.5 g of prebiotic composition is administered two gelatin caps "00" or two gelatin caps "0." In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is measured using a scoop.

[0348] Variations in the doses and timing in which the prebiotic compositions are administered can result in an effective treatment for increasing tolerance for lactose containing product. In one embodiment, the presented doses may be tested on subjects in need thereof. Thus, when applying the protocol of the present disclosure to younger subjects in need thereof, the weight of the subject might be a consideration. In one embodiment, a subject weighing 50 pounds (about 22.5 kg) is administered a lower dosage of a prebiotic composition than an adult. In another embodiment the timing of administration of a prebiotic composition to a pediatric subject can be different (e.g., once per day for 4 weeks) or the duration of administration can be shorter or longer than the duration of administration to an adult. In one embodiment the duration of administration of a prebiotic composition to a pediatric subject is shorter than the duration of administration to an adult. In one embodiment the duration of administration of a prebiotic composition to a pediatric subject is longer than the duration of administration to an adult.

[0349] In one embodiment the amount of a prebiotic composition administered to a subject can be proportionally adjusted based on the subject's weight. Although the doses are disclosed as being administered with breakfast and dinner, alternatively the order of the doses can be switched, or can be administered at other times of the day with meals such as lunch or snacks (or conceivably with no meals). The program can also be reduced into a shortened or lengthened program. In one embodiment a program of administration of a prebiotic composition to a subject in need thereof can be an abbreviated 1 week program or it can be lengthened up to a 10 week program. Although the methods and compositions herein have been described for use in humans, they are also capable of being administered to other mammals.

VII. Kits

[0350] In another aspect, the present disclosure contemplates kits for the treatment of the symptoms of lactose intolerance. The kits include a prebiotic composition in suitable packaging for use by a subject in need thereof in the treatment of one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance. Any of the compositions described herein can be packaged in the form of a kit. A kit can contain an amount of a prebiotic composition and, optionally, other ingredients as described herein, sufficient for an entire course of treatment, or for a portion of a course of treatment. Thus, in one embodiment, a kit includes sufficient prebiotic composition for the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth weeks of treatment, or additional weeks of treatment if used, or any combination thereof. Doses of a prebiotic composition can be individually packaged, or the prebiotic composition can be provided in bulk, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment the individually packaged prebiotic composition is provided as a tablet, caplet, capsule or container of powder. In another embodiment the prebiotic composition is provided in a controlled release formulation. In another embodiment the prebiotic composition is provided as a formulation with an enteric coating. Thus, in one embodiment, a kit provides, in suitable packaging, individual doses of a prebiotic composition that correspond to dosing points in a treatment regimen, wherein the doses are packaged in one or more packages intended for use in the treatment of symptoms of lactose intolerance. For example, a kit can contain doses of a prebiotic composition, as described herein, for a treatment program, where the prebiotic composition is taken in increasing doses, so that individual packets of a prebiotic composition are increasing in amount of a prebiotic composition contained in the packet, from lower doses intended for use at the start of the program to higher doses as the program progresses. As doses are provided for later points in the program, two or more doses per day can be provided, each in its individual packet. Each packet can be labeled to indicate the day and time of day that it is intended to be taken, or the packaging containing the packets can be so labeled, or both. A "packet," as used in this context, is any individual container that contains a prebiotic composition, whether the prebiotic composition is in solid or liquid form, and includes a packet that contains powder, tablets, or pills, or a packet that contains a liquid.

[0351] In another aspect, disclosed herein are kits containing a course of treatment for a gastrointestinal disorder, the kits comprising: a. a kit box comprising a lid; b. a plurality of sachets, each of the sachets containing a single dose of a pharmaceutical composition comprising a galactooligosaccharides (GOS) composition, wherein the pharmaceutical composition is a powder, and wherein the plurality of sachets are contained within the kit box; c. a label on a front side of the kit box; and d. instructions for use. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of sachets comprises: a. a seal; b. a front label (4240); c. optionally a notch for opening the sachet; d. optionally a back label; e. optionally a guideline for opening the sachet; and f. optionally an expansion pleat. In some embodiments, the sachet comprises the notch, wherein the notch is located on a side edge of the sachet. In some embodiments, the sachet comprises the notch, wherein the notch is located on a top edge of the sachet. In some embodiments, the plurality of sachets is from 10 to 100 sachets. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of sachets comprises from about 2 g to about 50 g of the pharmaceutical composition. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises one or more excipients. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises from about 10% to about 50% of the one or more excipients by dry weight. In some embodiments, the prebiotic composition does not comprise excipients and/or preservatives. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, and pentasaccharides. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises from about 0.1% to about 5% disaccharides, from about 30% to about 75% trisaccharides, from about 15% to about 45% tetrasaccharides, and from about 1% to about 20% pentasaccharides. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises from about 1% to about 2% disaccharides, from about 50% to about 60% trisaccharides, about 25% to about 35% tetrasaccharides, and about 5% to about 15% pentasaccharides. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises less than 5% digestible saccharides. In some embodiments, the gastrointestinal disorder is lactose intolerance, constipation, diarrhea, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), small intestine bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), hemorrhoids, indigestion or non-ulcer dyspepsia, anal fissures, perianal abscesses, anal fistula, diverticulosis or diverticulitis, colitis, infectious colitis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, ischemic colitis, radiation colitis, pseudomembranous colitis, C. difficile colitis, ameboma, anismus, peptic ulcers, colic, biliary colic, gastroenteritis, acrodermatitis enteropathica, ileus, intussusception, polyps, obesity, Hirschsprung's disease, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome. In some embodiments, the gastrointestinal disorder is lactose intolerance.

[0352] Also disclosed are kits containing a course of treatment for a gastrointestinal disorder, the kits comprising: a. a container containing a pharmaceutical composition comprising a GOS composition, wherein the pharmaceutical composition is a powder, the container comprising: i. a threaded opening, and ii. a label on a side-wall of the container; b. a lid that can be screwed onto the threaded opening of the container; c. a scoop or measuring cup; and d. instructions for use. In some embodiments, the container further comprises tabs forming a v- shaped opening in the threaded opening. In some embodiments, the container is cylindrical in shape. In some embodiments, the container comprises four substantially rectangular side- walls that taper to a rounded neck. In some embodiments, the gastrointestinal disorder is lactose intolerance, constipation, diarrhea, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), small intestine bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), hemorrhoids, indigestion or non-ulcer dyspepsia, anal fissures, perianal abscesses, anal fistula, diverticulosis or diverticulitis, colitis, infectious colitis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, ischemic colitis, radiation colitis, pseudomembranous colitis, C. difficile colitis, ameboma, anismus, peptic ulcers, colic, biliary colic, gastroenteritis, acrodermatitis enteropathica, ileus, intussusception, polyps, obesity, Hirschsprung's disease, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome. In some embodiments, the gastrointestinal disorder is lactose intolerance.

[0353] Also disclosed are kits containing a course of treatment for a gastrointestinal disorder, the kits comprising: a. a container comprising: i. a threaded opening or a child-safe lock opening, and ii. a label on a side-wall of the container; b. a lid compatible with the threaded opening or the child-safe lock opening; c. a plurality of tablets, each of the tablets being a dosage unit of a pharmaceutical composition comprising a GOS composition; d. instructions for use. In some embodiments, the container is cylindrical in shape. In some embodiments, the container comprises four substantially rectangular side-walls that taper to a rounded neck. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of tablets comprises from about 0.14 g to about 2 g of the pharmaceutical composition. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises one or more excipients. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises from about 10% to about 50% of the one or more excipients by dry weight. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, and pentasaccharides. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises from about 0.1% to about 5% disaccharides, from about 30% to about 75% trisaccharides, from about 15% to about 45% tetrasaccharides, and from about 1% to about 20% pentasaccharides. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises from about 1% to about 2% disaccharides, from about 50% to about 60% trisaccharides, about 25% to about 35% tetrasaccharides, and about 5% to about 15% pentasaccharides. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises less than 5% digestible saccharides. In some embodiments, the gastrointestinal disorder is lactose intolerance, constipation, diarrhea, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), small intestine bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), hemorrhoids, indigestion or non-ulcer dyspepsia, anal fissures, perianal abscesses, anal fistula, diverticulosis or diverticulitis, colitis, infectious colitis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, ischemic colitis, radiation colitis, pseudomembranous colitis, C. difficile colitis, ameboma, anismus, peptic ulcers, colic, biliary colic, gastroenteritis, acrodermatitis enteropathica, ileus, intussusception, polyps, obesity, Hirschsprung's disease, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome. In some embodiments, the gastrointestinal disorder is lactose intolerance.

[0354] Also disclosed herein are kits containing a course of treatment for a gastrointestinal disorder, the kits comprising: a. a container comprising: i. a threaded opening or a child-safe lock opening, and ii. a label on a side-wall of the container; b. a lid compatible with the threaded opening or the child-safe lock opening; c. a plurality of capsules, each of the capsules being a dosage unit of a pharmaceutical composition comprising a GOS composition; d. instructions for use. In some embodiments, the container is cylindrical in shape. In some embodiments, the container comprises four substantially rectangular side-walls that taper to a rounded neck. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of tablets comprises from about 0.14 g to about 2 g of the pharmaceutical composition. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises one or more excipients. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises from about 10% to about 50% of the one or more excipients by dry weight. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, and pentasaccharides. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises from about 0.1% to about 5% disaccharides, from about 30% to about 75% trisaccharides, from about 15% to about 45% tetrasaccharides, and from about 1% to about 20% pentasaccharides. In some embodiments, the GOS composition comprises from about 1% to about 2% disaccharides, from about 50% to about 60% trisaccharides, about 25% to about 35% tetrasaccharides, and about 5% to about 15% pentasaccharides. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises less than 5% digestible saccharides. In some embodiments, the gastrointestinal disorder is lactose intolerance, constipation, diarrhea, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), small intestine bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), hemorrhoids, indigestion or non-ulcer dyspepsia, anal fissures, perianal abscesses, anal fistula, diverticulosis or diverticulitis, colitis, infectious colitis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, ischemic colitis, radiation colitis, pseudomembranous colitis, C. difficile colitis, ameboma, anismus, peptic ulcers, colic, biliary colic, gastroenteritis, acrodermatitis enteropathica, ileus, intussusception, polyps, obesity, Hirschsprung's disease, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome. In some embodiments, the gastrointestinal disorder is lactose intolerance. [0355] In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition can be provided in bulk in a single container, or in two, three, four, five, or more than five containers (e.g., where each container contains enough of a prebiotic composition for a particular week of a treatment program). If more than one bulk container is provided, the bulk containers can be suitably packaged together to provide sufficient prebiotic composition for all or a portion of a treatment protocol. The container or containers can be labeled with a label indicating information useful to the subject in need thereof performing the treatment protocol, such as dosing schedules.

[0356] The prebiotic composition can be packaged with other suitable substances, such as probiotic bacteria, FOS, or buffer, as described herein. The other substance or substances can be packaged separately from the prebiotic composition, or mixed with the prebiotic composition, or combinations thereof. Thus, in one embodiment, kits of the present disclosure include a powder or liquid containing all the ingredients intended to be used in a course of treatment or a portion of a course of treatment, e.g., a prebiotic composition and optionally a probiotic, FOS, or a buffer. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition is packaged in one package or set of packages, and additional components, such as bacteria, FOS, or buffer, are packaged separately from the prebiotic composition.

[0357] Kits can further include written materials, such as instructions, expected results, testimonials, explanations, warnings, clinical data, information for health professionals, and the like. In one embodiment, the kits contain a label or other information indicating that the kit is only for use under the direction of a health professional, such as a dietician, nutritionist, nurse, physician, or other appropriate health professional. In another embodiment, the kits contain or include information, such as a label, designating the material within as a medical food.

[0358] In one embodiment, the present disclosure provides for a kit that includes a container of powder, where the powder includes a prebiotic composition, and optionally FOS, bacteria, or buffer, and a label on the container that indicates proper dosage and schedule of use for the powder. The container can further include scoops or other measuring or serving devices. In one embodiment, the present disclosure provides for a kit that includes a container of liquid, where the liquid includes a prebiotic composition and additionally FOS, bacteria, or buffer, and a label on the container that indicates proper dosage and schedule of use for the liquid. The container can further include measuring or serving devices.

EXAMPLES EXAMPLE 1: CLINICAL STUDY [0359] The primary objective of this study is to assess the efficacy of 2 RP-G28 dosing regimens on symptoms related to lactose intolerance relative to placebo after 30 days of treatment.

[0360] The study may be designed as a phase 2b/3, multicenter, randomized, double- blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study to determine the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of 2 dosing regimens of RP G28 in subjects with moderate to severe lactose intolerance. Subjects may be enrolled at up to 30 investigative sites in the United States. There are 3 distinct phases to this study: a 7 day screening phase, a 30-day treatment phase, and a 30-day, off-study drug, post-treatment phase. The phases of the study are outlined in Figure 1. The current Protocol G28-003 study is designed to assess 2 dosing regimens of RP-G28 for efficacy and tolerability in order to determine the most efficacious and safe dose to be further studied in the phase 3 program.

Screening Phase Treatment P ase Post-Treatment Phase

Day 1 to Day 30 Day 31 to Day 51

No Dairy Consumption Daily Dairy Consumption

Visits 3 54

Visits

P ne Grou A Visit 5 Visits 7

{Day 61) Fre-sereen KF-G2S

? ⁽Day 315 Phone Caff

Fsnaf Visit

Group B

RP-G2S

Group C

Fia ebo

Flow Chart of Protocol G28-003 Study Design

[0361] During screening, appropriate subjects may be identified by each site using a prescreening questionnaire and scheduled for a baseline evaluation (Day -7; visit 1, baseline visit) at which time informed consent may be obtained, a 5-hour Solution Z Assessment (SZA) may be conducted to confirm the subject has lactose intolerance. There may be a symptom questionnaire post-lactose challenge (Solution Z Assessment [SZA]) and a hydrogen breath test (HBT) post-lactose challenge. Symptom severity scores from the SZA and real-time data from the HBT are required to confirm eligibility. The subject can be scheduled for visit 2 as soon as results are back confirming the subject's continued eligibility.

[0362] At visit 2 (Day 1 +3/-5 days; randomization), subjects meeting eligibility criteria will complete Quality of Life (QOL) instruments, the lactose assessment tool (LAT), and be randomized at the end of visit 2 to 1 of 2 dosing regimens of RP-G28 (5 g increasing to 7.5 g orally twice daily or 7.5 g increasing to 10 g orally twice daily) or placebo twice daily in a 1:1:1 ratio. The first dose may be taken at the clinic on Day 1. The treatment phase (visits 2-5) may be 30 days in duration, where no dairy may be consumed by the subjects. [0363] At the end of the treatment phase (Day 31 +3/-1 day, visit 5) and the 30 days post-treatment phase (Day 61 +3/-1 day, visit 8), subjects will undergo another 5-hour SZA and an HBT in the clinic.

STUDY OBJECTIVES AND ENDPOINTS

Primary Efficacy Objective

[0364] The primary objective of this study is to assess efficacy of RP-G28 compared to the placebo on reduction of abdominal symptoms post-lactose challenge (SZA) after 30 days of treatment (Day 31).

Primary Efficacy Endpoint

[0365] The primary efficacy endpoint is abdominal symptom response at Day 31. A response is based on change from baseline (Day -7, visit 1) to end of treatment period at Day 31 (visit 5), calculated from the combined average of four maximum symptom scores taken over 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 hours for each abdominal symptom (abdominal pain, abdominal cramping, abdominal bloating, and abdominal gas) after a lactose challenge test (SZA). A response is defined as a 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 points, or greater, decrease from baseline or a composite score of zero at Day 31. Preferably, a change of at least 3 points, of at least 4 points, of at least 5 points, or greater, as reported by a patient, is considered meaningful. The change of at least 3 points, of at least 4 points, or of at least 5 points, or greater may be either for a single symptom or for a composite of 2, 3, or 4 symptoms. Even more preferably, a change of at least 4 points or greater is considered meaningful. The change of at least 4 points, or greater, may be either for a single symptom or for a composite of 2, 3, or 4 symptoms.

Secondary Efficacy Objective

[0366] Secondary efficacy objectives will examine the 30-day post-treatment effect (Day 61, visit 8) of individual patient responder status based on the assessment of the composite abdominal symptoms (abdominal pain, abdominal cramping, abdominal bloating, and abdominal gas). In addition, the Day 31 and Day 61 treatment effect on diarrhea as evaluated by stool form consistency using the Bristol Stool Form Scale may be assessed.

Secondary Efficacy Endpoints

[0367] 1. Experience of stool form Type 6 and Type 7 (as an assessment of diarrhea) in post-lactose challenge test (SZA) at Day 31. [0368] 2. Abdominal symptom response at Day 61, using the same definition of response as for the primary endpoint.

[0369] 3. Experience of stool form Type 6 and Type 7 (as an assessment of diarrhea) in post-lactose challenge test (SZA) at Day 61.

[0370] Exploratory objectives include assessments of bowel movement; LI patient global impression and assessment standards, and HBT. Exploratory endpoints may be assessed between baseline (Day -7, visit 1) and end-of-treatment phase (Day 31, visit 5), between baseline and 30 days post-treatment phase (Day 61, visit 8), and between end-of-treatment phase and 30 days post treatment phase, when possible. Determination of treatment effect in fecal bacterial shift, noted in the protocol, may be assessed separately.

[0371] Exploratory endpoints may include:

1. Change in post-lactose challenge (SZA) maximum abdominal pain score.

2. Change in post-lactose challenge (SZA) maximum abdominal cramping score.

3. Change in post-lactose challenge (SZA) maximum abdominal bloating score.

4. Change in post-lactose challenge (SZA) maximum abdominal gas movement score.

5. Change in post-lactose challenge (SZA) release of gas (flatulence) maximum score.

6. Change in post-lactose challenge (SZA) bowel urgency maximum score.

7. Proportion of subjects who experience of one or more bowel movements in post- lactose challenge (SZA).

8. Number of bowel movements in post-lactose challenge (SZA).

9. Change in stool form consistency based on Bristol Stool Form Scale.

10. Change in total hydrogen production (as evaluated by HBT measures).

11. Change in peak hydrogen production (as evaluated by HBT measures).

12. Change from baseline in post-lactose challenge (SZA) composite score assessment of abdominal-related symptoms (abdominal pain, abdominal cramping, abdominal bloating, and abdominal gas). The composite may be calculated by averaging the maximum scores of the four relevant items.

13. Change in Patient Global Impression of Severity (PGIS) overall symptom severity at 5 hours post-lactose challenge (SZA).

14. Change in PGIS overall symptom severity for past 7 days.

15. Patient Global Impression of Change (PGIC) for past 7 days.

16. Patient Assessment of Adequate Relief Item (PAARI) for past 7 days. 17. Patient Assessment of Satisfaction Item (PASI) for past 7 days.

18. Change in Patient Assessment of Living with LI (PAL LI) for past 7 days.

19. Change in Food Frequency Questionnaire "Lactose Assessment Tool (LAT)" for past 7 days.

Safety and Tolerability Endpoints

[0372] The frequency and severity of adverse events (AEs) that occur during the trial may be evaluated, as well as vital signs, clinical laboratory results, and findings from physical examinations. Also, the number of patients who required dose adjustments in each treatment arm may be evaluated.

CLINICAL STUDY DEFINITIONS

Adverse Event (AE)

[0373] An AE is defined as any undesired medical occurrence in a patient or clinical investigation patient receiving a pharmaceutical product and which does not necessarily have a causal relationship with this treatment. An AE can therefore be any unfavorable sign and unintended sign (including an abnormal laboratory finding), symptom, or disease temporarily associated with the use of a study drug, whether or not related to the study drug.

[0374] Adverse events may be graded for severity using the following categories. Missing grade may be assigned a grade of 3 (severe) in tabulations.

• Grade 1 (Mild): Does not interfere with subject's usual function;

• Grade 2 (Moderate): Interferes to some extent with subject's usual function;

• Grade 3 (Severe): Interferes significantly with subject's usual function.

Relationship to study drug may be assessed by the principal investigator using the following categories. Missing relatedness may be assigned to "related" in tabulations.

• Unrelated: There is not a temporal or causal relationship to the investigational product administration;

• Not Likely: There is a temporal relationship between the investigational product

administration and the AE, but there is not a reasonable causal relationship between investigational product and the event;

• Possible: There is a reasonable causal relationship between the investigational product and the AE. De-challenge is lacking or unclear;

• Probable: There is a reasonable causal relationship between the investigational product and the AE. The event responds to de-challenge. Rechallenge not required; • Definite: There is a reasonable causal relationship between the investigational product and the AE, when the event responds to withdrawal of the investigational product (de-challenge), and recurs with rechallenge by administration of the investigational product.

Treatment-Emergent AE:

[0375] A treatment-emergent AE (TEAE) is any AE that begins or increases in severity after the initial dose of study drug.

Serious Unexpected Suspected Adverse Reaction (SUSAR):

[0376] A serious adverse drug reaction (SAR) that is unexpected or for which the development is uncommon (unexpected issue) observed during a clinical trial is a SUSAR. The Sponsor typically assesses whether the event is unexpected or expected based on the clinical information known about the investigational product (eg, noted in the Investigator's Brochure). This determination may be made prior to database lock and unblinding.

Age:

[0377] Subject's age is defined as its integer value in years at enrollment. Baseline:

[0378] For any variable, unless otherwise defined, baseline is the last assessment taken prior to the first study drug administration (Day -7; hours 0-5).

Change from Baseline:

[0379] The arithmetic difference between an end-of-treatment phase value and the baseline (Day -7) value:

[0380] Change from baseline = (end-of-treatment phase value - baseline (Day -7) value)

[0381] Percentage change from baseline = ([end-of-treatment phase value - baseline (Day -7) value]/baseline (Day -7) value) x 100

End of Study:

[0382] End of study is at Day 61 +3/-1 day, unless terminated early. Enrollment Date:

[0383] Enrollment date is the same as the randomization date at visit 2 and is designated Day 1.

Randomization Date: [0384] Randomization date is the day the subject is assigned a randomization number on study Day 1.

Responder:

[0385] A subject who has a decrease of 4 or more points from baseline in their composite score or achieves a composite score of zero at the time point of interest is defined as having responded. A subject who has a decrease of 1, 2, or 3 points from baseline in their composite score or achieves a composite score of zero at the time point of interest may also be defined as having responded. A composite score is derived by taking the maximum score reported during hours 0.5 to 5 of the SZA for each abdominal symptom (abdominal pain, abdominal cramping, abdominal bloating, and abdominal gas) and averaging them.

[0386] Day of treatment: study day = (visit date - date of study Day 1).

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF ENDPOINTS

[0387] Data is summarized by each treatment arm and for pooled active arms. Descriptive statistics on continuous variables include mean, standard deviation, median, 25th and 75th percentiles, and range. Change from baseline include a 95% confidence interval. Categorical variables are summarized using frequency counts and percentages. Data listings of individual subject's data may be provided. Statistical testing may be performed using 2-tailed tests at the a = 0.05 level of significance. The SAS software version 9.4 or later may be used for statistical programming and analysis.

[0388] The number of subjects who are randomized, receive study drug, and complete the study may be summarized. The number of subjects included in the safety, mITT, and PP analysis sets may be included in the table. Attendance at each visit, including missed visits, discontinuations, lost to follow up, and percentage accountability may be summarized. A list of subjects who withdraw early may be provided. The reason and timing of the withdrawal may be recorded. Similarly, the reason any subject is excluded from an analysis set may be provided. In addition, significant known protocol deviations may be noted for individual subjects; a summary table may also be provided.

[0389] Age, race, ethnicity, sex, height, weight, and body mass index may be summarized by treatment arm for all subjects receiving study drug, using descriptive statistics.

EFFICACY ANALYSES

Primary Efficacy Analysis [0390] Abdominal symptom responder status at Day 31 (or Day 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 29, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, or 50) or may be analyzed by a Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel (CMH) test comparing pooled high dose and low dose vs placebo. Stratification may be by the baseline composite score arranged into quartiles.

Additional Confirmatory Analyses

[0391] Where the primary efficacy analysis is statistically significant, the following additional analyses may be conducted using a fixed sequence testing ("gatekeeping") procedure (Westfall, 2001).

[0392] 1. Comparison between high-dose and placebo for the primary endpoint of abdominal symptom responder status at Day 31

[0393] 2. Comparison between high-dose and placebo for the secondary endpoint of stool form at Day 31

[0394] 3. Comparison between high-dose and placebo for the secondary endpoint of abdominal symptoms responder status at Day 61

[0395] 4. Comparison between high-dose and placebo for the secondary endpoint of stool form at Day 61

[0396] 5. Comparison between low-dose and placebo for the primary endpoint of abdominal symptom responder status at Day 31

[0397] 6. Comparison between low-dose and placebo for the secondary endpoint of stool form at Day 31

[0398] 7. Comparison between low-dose and placebo for the secondary endpoint of abdominal symptom responder status at Day 61

[0399] 8. Comparison between low-dose and placebo for the secondary endpoint of stool form at Day 61

[0400] Each of the above comparisons may be made using a 2-sided, 3-dided, or 4- sided test at various levels of statistical significance, including for example, the level of a = 0.05.

[0401] All secondary analyses may be be conducted using CMH tests with the same stratification variable (quartiles of baseline composite score).

Additional Analyses of the Primary and Secondary Endpoints

[0402] For each of the at least one, two, three, or four secondary endpoints, the comparison between the pooled high- and low-dose arms versus placebo may be tested. In addition, all analyses of primary and secondary endpoints may be repeated using the PP population. [0403] Quantitative exploratory endpoints based on maximum scores or counts may be analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) models with treatment group (3 levels) as a factor and the baseline value of the corresponding parameter as a covariate. In the ANCOVA analyses, contrasts between the pooled active groups and placebo, and between each active group and placebo, may be tested. Binary endpoints may be analyzed using CMH tests. For each endpoint, 3 comparisons may be made: both doses combined versus placebo, high-dose versus placebo, and low-dose versus placebo. All exploratory analyses may be conducted using 2-sided, 3-sided, or 4-dsided tests at various levels of statistical significance. Adjustment for multiplicity may not be applied.

[0404] In addition to the formal analysis of the responder endpoints, empirical cumulative distribution curves may be presented. These allow for descriptive comparisons between treatment and placebo at any cut point of the endpoint.

[0405] For the primary and secondary analyses with the mITT population, a subject who provides no data at the time point of interest is defined to be a nonresponder. For the secondary endpoint, stool form Type 6 or Type 7, a subject with missing data (subject did not attend visit) may be assumed to have stool form Type 6 or Type 7 present.

[0406] Sensitivity analyses conducted in the mITT population may include the following approaches to handle subjects who do not provide data (subject did not attend visit) at the end-of-treatment phase assessment:

• Best case (an active subject may be assigned to responder status; a placebo subject may be assigned to non-responder status); stool form Type 6 or Type 7 are coded as absent for active and present for placebo.

• Worst case (an active subject may be assigned to non-responder status; a placebo subject may be assigned to responder status); stool form Type 6 or Type 7 are coded as present for active and absent for placebo.

[0407] If the conclusions drawn from the best and worst case analyses differ, a tipping point analysis may be performed.

SAFETY ANALYSES

[0408] A safety profile may be generated and may be based on AEs, concomitant medications, vital signs, physical examinations, and clinical laboratory measurements. All treated subjects are included in the safety analyses.

[0409] Adverse events may be grouped by system organ class and by preferred term within system organ class according to the latest version of the Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities (MedDRA) coding dictionary. The number of subjects reporting at least 1 AE and each AE are summarized for each treatment group. Adverse event subsets (related, serious) and by greatest severity may be provided. Tables and/or narratives of any on-study death, serious or significant AEs, including early withdrawals because of AEs, may be provided.

[0410] The number and percent of patients receiving medications or treatments prior to and after the first dose of the study drug may be tabulated and presented overall and by treatment group for the safety analysis dataset. Concomitant medications and treatments are summarized using descriptive statistics and may be presented by type of drug (World Health Organization [WHO] DRUG classification preferred term and Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification [ATC] level 4) by treatment group.

[0411] Hematology, chemistry, and urinalysis data may be among the data collected and listed for each subject. Laboratory data are summarized by treatment arm. Values outside the normal laboratory reference range are flagged as high or low on the listings. Urinalysis results are listed. Depending on the size and scope of changes in laboratory data, summaries over time and/or changes from baseline over time may be provided.

[0412] Vital signs may be listed for each subject. Such vital signs include, but are not limited to, pulse and blood pressure. Summaries over time and changes from baseline may be observed.

[0413] Any new or abnormal findings are recorded as AEs. Status of each body system may be be summarized by normal and abnormal status, as well as being clinically significant at each visit.

[0414] The primary endpoint may be based on a baseline to Day 31 of area under the curve abdominal pain symptom score post-lactose challenge ("Solution Z Assessment") to abdominal symptom response at Day 31. Alternatively, the primary endpoint may be based on a composite of the maximum scores of one, two, three or four of the following abdominal symptoms: abdominal pain, abdominal cramping, abdominal bloating, and abdominal gas. The primary endpoint may be based on a baseline to Day 14, 20, 28, 30, 35, 40, 42, 50, or up to 60 days of area under the curve abdominal pain symptom score post-lactose challenge ("Solution Z Assessment") to abdominal symptom response at Day 14, 20, 28, 30, 35, 40, 42, 50, or 60. Alternatively, the primary endpoint may be based on a composite of the maximum scores of one, two, three or four of the following abdominal symptoms: abdominal pain, abdominal cramping, abdominal bloating, and abdominal gas, where one or more of the symptoms is weighted more heavily that the other symptoms. [0415] The primary analysis may be a comparison between the two active arms combined versus placebo via a CMH test. The primary analysis population may, alternatively, be based on either the ITT population or the mITT population.

[0416] The primary method of imputation may be used.

[0417] Secondary endpoints may be variants of the primary endpoints.

[0418] Exploratory endpoints may be variants of the primary endpoints.

TABLES TO SHOW STATISTICAL ANALYSES

[0419] The following tables are examples of tables used to show statistical analyses of efficacy and safety of the compound and pharmaceutical compositions described.

Table Accountability/Baseline

14.1.1 Accountability (Analysis population: All Enrolled)

14.1.2 Enrollment by Site (Analysis population: All Enrolled)

14.1.3 Analysis Populations (Analysis population: All Enrolled)

14.1.4 Patient Disposition (All Enrolled)

14.1.5 Study Drug Administration (All Enrolled)

14.1.6 Protocol Deviations (Analysis population: All Enrolled)

14.1.7.1 Demographics and Baseline Characteristics (Analysis population: mITT)

14.1.7.2 Demographics and Baseline Characteristics (Analysis population: PP)

14.1.8 Medical History by System Organ Class and Preferred Term (Analysis population: mITT)

14.1.9 Medications Prior to First Study Drug Administration by ATC level 4 and WHO Preferred

Term (Analysis population: mITT)

ATC = anatomical therapeutic chemical classification; mITT = modified intent to treat; PP = per protocol; WHO = World Health Organization.

[0420] The following tables provide both for mITT and PP analysis populations.

Table B. Efficacy

14.2.1 Summary of Responder Status

14.2.2 Sensitivity Analyses of Responder Status

14.2.3 Summary of Subjects Experiencing a Type 6 or Type 7 Stool Form (diarrhea)

14.2.4 Summary of Composite Symptom Score

14.2.5 Summary of Maximum Abdominal Pain Symptom Score

14.2.6 Summary of Maximum Abdominal Cramping Symptom Score

14.2.7 Summary of Maximum Abdominal Bloating Symptom Score

14.2.8 Summary of Maximum Abdominal Gas Symptom Score

14.2.9 Summary of Maximum Release of Gas Symptom Score

14.2.10 Summary of Maximum Bowel Urgency Symptom Score

14.2.11 Summary of Number of Bowel Movements

14.2.12 Summary of Changes in Stool form Consistency Based on Bristol Stool Form Scale

14.2.13 Proportion of Subjects Experiencing a Bowel Movement Table B. Efficacy

14.2.14 Summary of Patient Global Impression of Severity (PGIS)

14.2.15 Summary of Patient Assessment of Living with LI (PAL-LI)

14.2.16 Summary of Patient Global Impression of Change (PGIC)

14.2.17 Summary of Patient Assessment of Adequate Relief Item (PAARI)

14.2.18 Summary of Patient Assessment of Satisfaction (PASI)

14.2.19 Summary of Total Hydrogen Production

14.2.20 Summary of Peak Hydrogen Production

14.2.21 Summary of Missed, Interrupted, or Reductions in Dose

14.2.22 Summary of Prohibited Concomitant Medications

14.2.23 Summary of Food Frequency Questionnaire (Lactose Assessment Tool)

Table C. Safety

14.3.14 Summary of Physical Examination over Time (Analysis population: Safety)

14.3.15.1 Medication Started after First Dose of Study Drug by ATC Level 4 and WHO Preferred

Term (Analysis population: Safety)

14.3.15.2 Medication Started after First Dose of Study Drug by WHO Preferred Term in

Descending Order of Use (Analysis population: Safety)

ATC = anatomical therapeutic chemical classification; BP = blood pressure; WHO = World Health Organization.

EXAMPLE 2: GROWTH OF LACTOBACILLUS AND BIFIDOBACTERIUM STRAINS

IN A GOS SOLUTION

[0421] The growth of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains was evaluated in scratch MRS (Table 14) supplemented with either 2% glucose or 2% GOS and automatically monitored by determining the change in absorbance (A600) as a function of the time using a FLUOStar OPTIMA microtiter plate reader. The strains were incubated at 37 C aerobically. Results are shown in Figure 12. Some strains were grown under anaerobic conditions at 37°C and OD's were read manually over time, when indicated.

TABLE 14: SCRATCH MRS FORMULA:

Reagents Amount (g) per liter

Proteose peptone N3 10.0

Beef extract 10.0

Yeast extract 5.0

Polysorbate 80 1.0

Ammonium citrate 2.0

Sodium acetate 5.0

Magnesium sulfate 0.1

Manganese sulfate 0.05

Dipotassium phosphate 2.0

Glucose or GOS 20

EXAMPLE 3: HPLC-RI METHOD FOR ASSAY AND PURITY ANALYSIS

OF A GOS COMPOSITION SYRUP

[0422] The purpose of this method is to assay by area percent and purity of a GOS composition syrup by an ion exclusion isocratic method. Preparing samples for HPLC

[0423] An approximately 10 mg/mL TP-G28 solution is prepared, in a 50 mL volumetric flask, by diluting 500 mg of a GOS composition syrup with 0.015N sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). The solution is filtered using a 0.2 μιη polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) filter (Whatman). The first 2 mL are discarded; the remaining solution is collected in an HPLC vial. An approximately 0.19 mg/mL lactose solution is prepared , in a 100 mL volumetric flask, by diluting 19 mg of lactose with 0.015N H₂SO₄. The solution is filtered using a 0.2 μιη PVDF filter. The first 2 mL are discarded; the remaining solution is collected in an high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) vial. An approximately 0.005 mg/mL glucose solution is prepared , in a 100 mL volumetric flask, by diluting 5 mg of lactose with 0.015N H₂SO₄. The solution is filtered using a 0.2 μιη PVDF filter. The first 2 mL are discarded; the remaining solution is collected in an HPLC vial. An approximately 0.11 mg/mL solution of galactose is prepared, in a 100 mL volumetric flask, by diluting 11 mg of lactose with 0.015N sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). The solution is filtered using a 0.2 μιη PVDF filter. The first 2 mL are discarded; the remaining solution is collected in an HPLC vial.

Running samples on an HPLC machine

[0424] An Agilent 1100 Series HPLC, equipped with a Transgenomic ICSep ICE- ION-300, 300 x 7.8 mm column, is conditioned with 0.015N H₂S0₄ at 40°C run at 0.4 mL/minute for 60 minutes. Prior to an analytical run, consecutive blank injections, consisting of 60 μΐ, of 0.015N H₂SO₄, are performed until a stable baseline is observed. For the analytical run, 60 μΐ, of prepared the GOS composition sample is injected and the column is run at 0.4 mL/min for 30 minutes. The sample is analyzed with a Waters 2414 RI detector set to a sensitivity level of 16. The expected retention times of the GOS composition syrup components are shown in Table 15. The HPLC chromatograph of the GOS composition can be found in Figure 20; a zoomed in version of the GOS composition is located underneath. Comparison samples were run under identical conditions. Figure 21 shows the chromatograph of a blank sample (0.015N H₂SO₄); Figure 22 shows the chromatograph of lactose; Figure 23 shows the chromatograph of glucose; and, Figure 24 shows the chromatograph of galactose.

TABLE 15: EXPECTED RETENTION TIMES (APPROXIMATE)

Species Retention Time

GOS 3 11.2 min

GOS 4 12.1 min

GOS 5 13.2 min

Lactose 13.7 min

GOS 6 14.4 min

Glucose 16.2 min

Galactose 17.4 min

Diluent peak 19.7 min

Analysis of the GOS composition HPLC chromatograph

[0425] Chromatographs are analyzed using Waters Empower software. GOS elutes as 6 peaks; however, peaks 1 and 2 overlap. The area of all 6 GOS peaks are measured, divided by the total area of all non-solvent peaks, and multiplied by 100 to determine the percent Area of the sample. To determine the percent impurity, the total area of all non-GOS/non-solvent peaks is divided by the total area of the GOS peaks and multiplied by 100.

EXAMPLE 4: PURIFICATION OF A GOS COMPOSITION

[0426] Figures 13A and B illustrate HPLC chromatograms of GOS compositions as described herein before (13A) and after (13B) a purification procedure.

EXAMPLE 5: COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF BIFIDOBACTERIUM

SPECIES ON GALACTOOLIGOSACCHARIDES.

[0427] The objective of the study was to determine the ability of various Bifidobacterium species and strains to grow on galactooligosaccharides

[0428] The growth of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains was evaluated in scratch MRS (Table 16) supplemented with 2% of a carbohydrate solution. The carbohydrates used in the experiments were: Glucose - Fisher; Lactose - Fisher; GOS1 - 95% GOS purity from Inalco SPA - Provided by Ritter Pharmaceuticals; GOS2 - 90% GOS purity from GTC - provided by Ritter Pharmaceuticals.

[0429] Carbohydrate stock solutions were filter sterilized and then added to either a scratch MRS formulation (Table 16), or a semisynthetic medium (Table 17).

TABLE 16: SCRATCH MRS COMPOSITION

Reagents Amount (g) per liter Reagents Amount (g) per liter

Proteose peptone N3 10.0

Beef extract 10.0

Yeast extract 5.0

Polysorbate 80 1.0

Ammonium citrate 2.0

Sodium acetate 5.0

Magnesium sulfate 0.1

Manganese sulfate 0.05

Dipotassium phosphate 2.0

Carbohydrates 20

TABLE 17: SEMISYNTHETIC MEDIUM FOR ESCHERICHIA COLI

(Barrangou, R., E. Altermann, R. Hutkins, R. Cano, And T. Klaenhammer. 2003. Functional And Comparative Genomic Analyses Of An Operon Involved In

Fructooligosaccharide Utilization By Lactobacillus Acidophilus.

Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA. 100:8957-8962).

1% bactopeptone (w/v) (Difco),

0.5% yeast extract (w/v) (Difco),

0.2% dipotassium phosphate (w/v) (Fisher),

0.5% sodium acetate (w/v) (Fisher),

0.2% ammonium citrate (w/v) (Sigma),

0.02% magnesium sulfate (w/v) (Fisher),

0.005% manganese sulfate (w/v) (Fisher),

0.1% Tween 80 (v/v) (Sigma).

Carbohydrates were added at 2%.

Culture Methods:

[0430] Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium cultures were propagated in MRS broth overnight, and then transferred once through the test medium. For growth experiments, cultures were inoculated into the MRS scratch medium containing one of the 4 carbohydrates to be examined. Growth was monitored either: ** automatically, using a FLUOStar OPTIMA microtiter plate reader to monitor the change in absorbance (A600) as a function of the time. The strains were incubated at 37C aerobically for these experiments; or ** manually, using a standard spectrophotometer to monitor the change in OD600nm over time, in 5 ml liquid culture tubes. These cultures were incubated anaerobically at 37°C in a COY anaerobic chamber, flushed with anaerobic gas.

Species Identification:

[0431] All bifidobacterial cultures used in these experiments were confirmed by taxonomic identification using 16S rRNA sequencing, via standard methods (Kullen, M.J., R.B. Sanozky Dawes, D.C. Crowell and T.R. Klaenhammer (2000) Use of DNA sequence of variable regions of the 16SrRNA gene for rapid and accurate identification of bacteria in the Lactobacillus acidophilus complex. /. Appl. Microbiol. 89:511-518.

Results:

[0432] Figures 14-19 illustrate the growth of Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM and various strains of Bifidobacterium and Escherichia coli over time. Key conclusions from these data are detailed below.

[0433] First, Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM grows equally well on GOSl (95%) as on glucose, indicating that the microbe efficiently metabolizes GOSl (95%) (Figure 14).

[0434] Second, six different species of Bifidobacterium were examined for their ability to grow on GOS l (95%) (Figures 15 & 16). The results showed that most strains grew on GOS l (95%), but at rates that were slower than when growing on glucose. The exceptions were B. pseudolongum which grew equally well on GOSl (95%) and glucose (Figure 15), and B. adolescentis, which grew better on GOSl (95%) than on glucose. The species of B. adolescentis and B. longum predominate in the feces of adult humans. (Hoover, DG. 2000. Bifidobacterium. Pp 210-217. In The Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology. Carl Batt and P.D. Patel (Eds). Academic Press, San Diego.

[0435] Third, five different species of Bifidobacterium were also examined for their comparative growth on four different carbohydrate sources; glucose, lactose, GOS l (95%) and GOS2 (90%) (Figures 17 & 18). Notable in these results was that all four of the species grew reasonably well on GOS, but in each case slightly better on GOS2 (90%), than on GOS 1 (95%). This difference was attributed to the larger percentage of simple carbohydrates present in the GOS2 sample. These contaminating carbohydrates would be expected to be galactose, lactose and glucose, all of which could stimulate slightly more growth from the GOS2 substrate. The B. bifidum strain used in the experiments grew poorly on all carbohydrates. Surprisingly, none of the Bifidobacterium strains used in these experiments grew on lactose, except for B. pseudolongum. It is speculated that contaminating glucose carried over from the initial propagation cultures in standard MRS broth may have been sufficient to elicit catabolite repression of the lactose metabolic pathways during these experiments.

[0436] Fourth, three different strains of Escherichia coli were examined for their ability to grow on GOS1 (95%) and GOS2 (90%) (Figure 19). The results show that the E. coli strains could not grow on GOS1 (95%), or in the absence of added carbohydrate (control). In contrast, all three strains grew well on GOS2 (90%) at rates that were comparable to growth on glucose. The results indicate that the 10% contaminating carbohydrates (e.g. glucose, galactose, lactose) in the GOS2 (90%) sample were sufficient to stimulate growth of E. coli strains to levels equal to free glucose. These results argue for the importance of the purity of the GOS compound in order to promote growth of the targeted beneficial microbes in the GI tract (e.g. lactobacilli and bifidobacteria), rather than stimulate E. coli and potentially other coliform bacteria in the GI tract.

EXAMPLE 6:

[0437] People with lactose intolerance have a decrease in the activity of lactase (β- galactosidase), the enzyme responsible for breaking down lactose, in the brush border membrane of the small intestine. This decrease results in a demonstrated maldigestion of the sugar lactose, either with or without symptoms after ingesting dairy products such as milk, ice cream, cheese and pizza. Lactose maldigestion is often defined more specifically as those people with an "increase in blood glucose concentration of < 1.12 mmol/L or breath hydrogen of >20ppm after ingestion of lg/kg body weight or 50g lactose" (de Vrese et al, 2001). The condition is primarily hereditary; however, it may also be induced by infections, chemotherapy, reactions to penicillin, and avoidance of dairy products for a prolonged period of time.

[0438] Lactose intolerance is a common gastrointestinal disorder that develops in lactose maldigesters when consuming too much lactose or when lactose is added to a previously low-lactose diet. Its development is dependent on the dose of lactose consumed, gastrointestinal transit, type of dairy food consumed, and the ability of the colon to metabolize lactose. Lactose intolerance is characterized by one or more of the cardinal symptoms following the ingestion of lactose-containing foods including abdominal pain/cramps, bloating, flatulence [gas] and diarrhea .These symptoms arise from undigested lactose in the large intestine, where it is a fermentable substrate for the bacterial flora. [0439] The relatively high incidence of symptoms resulting from intolerance to milk and dairy products in various populations has been well documented (Paige and Bayless 1981; Delmont 1983; Jackson and Savaiano 2001; Buchowski et al. 2002). The FDA's Consumer Health Information on the FDA's own website (2008) states that NIH "estimates that 30 to 50 million Americans are lactose intolerant." The NIH's website contains a substantial amount of information on this condition (NIH website).

[0440] Currently, there is no universally accepted therapy for the treatment of lactose intolerance. As such, most lactose intolerant individuals avoid the ingestion of milk and dairy products, while others substitute non-lactose containing products in their diet. A wide variety of nutritional supplements are currently sold such as the once daily probiotic Digestive Advantage ™ (Ganeden); however, they offer no proven benefit. An oral agent, Lactaid™, is perhaps the most widely accepted product and has been marketed for over 30 years to people with mild to moderate lactose intolerance. However, Lactaid™ must be ingested prior to eating dairy, and the outcome is dependent on the dose of Lactaid™ and the amount of lactose consumed, requiring as many as 5 or more pills per day. Finally, RP-L27 (Lactagen™, Ritter Pharmaceuticals, LLC), a marketed compound consisting of lactose and lactobacillus acidophilus and fructo- oligosaccharide (FOS), is given as a powder in increasing doses multiple times a day over 34 days.

[0441] Based on the health implications from insufficient calcium intake over a lifetime, including increased risk of osteoporosis and hypertension (McCarron and Heaney 2004) and possibly cancer (Barger-Lux and Heaney 1994; Consensus Conference: Optimal Calcium Intakes, NIH 1994), there is need in the medical community for a tolerable and convenient treatment that allows for all levels of milk and dairy product consumption in people suffering from mild to severe lactose intolerance. A treatment that provides a simplified dosing regimen as well as the potential for extended relief from symptoms following a limited therapy regimen (ie, < 30 days) would result in greater compliance and address an unmet medical need.

EXAMPLE 7: MICROBIOME ALTERATIONS IN RESPONSE TO DIETARY

INTERVENTION WITH GALACTO-OLIGOSACCHARIDES (GOS)

[0442] A randomized, double-blinded, multi-site placebo controlled trial was conducted to evaluate the administration of a highly purified, short chain galacto-oligosaccharide (GOS) composition, to evaluate clinical impacts on lactose digestion and tolerance. In these individuals, fecal samples were collected pre-treatment (Day 0), after GOS treatment (Day 36), and finally 30 days after GOS feeding stopped and consumption of dairy products was encouraged (Day 66). At each timepoint, 3 samples were analyzed such that total DNA was isolated from the fecal samples and subjected to fragment analysis using an ABI 3130x1 genetic analyzer (Figure 34). Following PCR amplficiation with a labeled 16S rDNA forward primer, changes in the fecal microbiome were investigated using both Terminal Restriction Fragment Length polymorphisms (TRFLP) and microbiome analysis of 16S rRNA genes by pyrosequencing.

[0443] TRFLP methodology: 1.) digest the samples with Hhal, Mspl and Rsal; 2.) determine the size of bands(restriction fragment length polymorphisms); 3.) If present in less than 3% of samples, then bands were removed (removes minor/random variability); 4) Two populations compared, >50% change required to be included in analysis (i.e. if present in 3% of one population, then at least 6% of the population to which it was compared); 5.) Bands collapsed to "scrub" data; 6.) Then all samples were decoded using RDF classifier website (Wang 2007) to determine bacterial identity; 7.) EACH PATIENT was compared to ONLY themselves at Time A and Time B; 8.) Bacteria that differed for an INDIVIDUAL patient was complied as absolute events

[0444] Pyrosequencing methodology: 1.) The forward primer composed of the Roche Titanium Fusion Primer A (5'-CGTATCGCCTCCCTCGCGCCATCAG-3'), a 10 base pair MID barcode (Roche) that was unique to each of the samples processed, and the universal bacteria primer 27F (5 ' - AGAGTTTGATCCTGGCTCAG-3 ' ) ; 2.) The reverse primer was composed of the Roche Titanium Fusion Primer B (5'- CTATGCGCCTTGCCAGCCCGCTCAG-3 ' ) a 10 base pair MID identical to the forward primer and the reverse bacteria primer 338R (5 ' -TGCTGCCTCCCGTAGGAGT-3 ' ) ; 3.) Raw average read of 288 base pairs; 4.) Samples yielded >1000 sequences per sample (up to 16,000); 5.) Sequences assigned to one of 14,365 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) at >97% similarity; 6.) Principle Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) based on Bray-Curtis measure of dissimilarity was used to compare each sample with another to determine the "degree" of dissimilarity between two samples, (e.g. a sample compared to itself would be zero).

Results:

[0445] Lactose digestion and overall symptoms of lactose intolerance trended toward improvement in subjects fed the GOS composition. Subjects on GOS were six times more likely to claim they were lactose tolerant post-treatment. As illustrated in Figure 33, the GOS composition treatment caused a shift in the bacterial population at day 36 as reflected by an increase in the absolute operational taxonomic units (OTU), which continued to increase until day 66 once dairy was added back to the diet following GOS composition treatment. Principal component analyses showed statistically significant shifts in the microbiome of subjects fed the GOS composition, compared to placebo, at 36 days (Table 18) and 66 days (Table 19). Lactobacillus species were overrepresented. Within the phylum Firmicutes, the abundance of Faecalibacterium and Roseburia species were significantly elevated between the two clusters that shifted in response to the GOS composition. In the treatment group, a significant reduction in the Clostridia class members of the microbiome, represented among the top 30 operational taxonomic units, also occurred during the GOScomposition treatment. The results indicated a definitive change in the fecal microbiome of lactose intolerant individuals that were clinically responsive to dietary adaptation to the GOS composition.

TABLE 18. TOP 30 OTUS BETWEEN DAY 0 AND DAY 36.

p-value

elevated

OTU Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species (Day 0 v

in Day 36)

Betaproteobacter

190821 Proteobacteria Burkholderiales Alcaligenaceae - - 0.0325 0 ia

Clostridiales_Family

212304 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les _XIII._lncertae_Sedi - - 0.0362 0 s

Clostridium

15734 Tenericutes Erysipelotrichi Erysipelotrichales Erysipelotrichaceae CM970 0.0391 0 innocuum

Clostridium

469991 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Lachnospiraceae Clostridium 0.0402 0 bolteae

181016 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Ruminococcaceae Eubacterium - 0.0417 36

231565 Actinobacteria Actinobacteria Coriobacteriales Coriobacteriaceae - - 0.0418 36

Anaerostipes

556341 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Lachnospiraceae Anaerostipes 0.044 36 caccae

296442 Bacteroidetes Bacteroidia Bacteroidales Prevotellaceae Prevotella - 0.0447 36

TABLE 19. TOP 30 OTUS BETWEEN DAY 0 AND DAY 66.

p-value

elevated

OTU Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species (Day 0 v

in Day 66)

Flavonifractor

203852 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Ruminococcaceae Clostridium <0.0001 0 plautii

203788 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Ruminococcaceae Clostridium - <0.0001 0

589329 Bacteroidetes Bacteroidia Bacteroidales Prevotellaceae Prevotella Prevotella copri <0.0001 0

Eubacterium

572915 Tenericutes Erysipelotrichi Erysipelotrichales Erysipelotrichaceae ATCCJ7803 <0.0001 0 cylindroides

198914 Tenericutes Erysipelotrichi Erysipelotrichales Erysipelotrichaceae Holdemania - <0.0001 0

Bacteroides

174809 Bacteroidetes Bacteroidia Bacteroidales Bacteroidaceae Bacteroides <0.0001 0 vulgatus

577170 Bacteroidetes Bacteroidia Bacteroidales Bacteroidaceae Bacteroides - 0.0001 0

510921 Bacteroidetes Bacteroidia Bacteroidales Prevotellaceae Prevotella - 0.0002 0

Alphaproteobac

325850 Proteobacteria - - - - 0.0002 0 teria

470451 Fusobacteria Fusobacteria Fusobacteriales Fusobacteriaceae Fusobacterium - 0.0008 0

187186 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Lachnospiraceae Coprococcus - 0.0009 0

191700 Tenericutes Erysipelotrichi Erysipelotrichales Erysipelotrichaceae Coprobacillus - 0.0013 0

325407 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Ruminococcaceae Faecalibacterium - 0.0016 66

Eubacterium

184577 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Lachnospiraceae Roseburia 0.002 0 rectale

199455 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Lachnospiraceae Eubacterium - 0.0021 66

Bacteroides

86468 Bacteroidetes Bacteroidia Bacteroidales Bacteroidaceae Bacteroides 0.0022 0 vulgatus

518748 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Lachnospiraceae Roseburia - 0.0023 66

354387 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Ruminococcaceae Faecalibacterium Faecalibacterium 0.0024 66 p-value

elevated

OTU Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species (Day 0 v

in Day 66)

prausnitzii

171788 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Ruminococcaceae - - 0.0026 0

Clostridiales_Family_XI

212304 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les - - 0.0041 0

ll._lncertae_Sedis

367581 Bacteroidetes Bacteroidia Bacteroidales Porphyromonadaceae Parabacteroides - 0.0045 66

Clostridium

198054 Tenericutes Erysipelotrichi Erysipelotrichales Erysipelotrichaceae CM970 0.0045 0

innocuum

204044 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Lachnospiraceae - - 0.0056 0

204121 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les - - - 0.0056 0

262492 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Clostridiaceae Clostridium - 0.0071 0

Phascolarctobact

13860 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Veillonellaceae - 0.0072 66

erium

368137 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Ruminococcaceae Subdoligranulum - 0.0074 0

Bacteroides

206906 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Ruminococcaceae Bacteroides 0.0079 0

capillosus

340603 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Lachnospiraceae Ruminococcus - 0.0084 0

548032 Firmicutes Clostridia Clostridia les Ruminococcaceae Oscillospira - 0.0086 0

182894 Actinobacteria Actinobacteria Coriobacteriales Coriobacteriaceae Adlercreutzia - 0.0091 0

EXAMPLE 8: CLINICAL ASSESSMENTS

DNA isolation

[0446] Total DNA isolation was carried out using the DNeasy Qiagen Blood and Tissue protocol (Qiagen, Germantown, MD). The Qiagen protocol was modified to ensure optimal isolation of DNA from Gram positive bacteria. Briefly, 200 mg of sample were transferred to a microtube containing 0.2 g of autoclaved glass beads (11 micron in diameter, Sigma) and 1.4 mL of ASL buffer (Qiagen). Next, samples were homogenized in a TissueLyser Π instrument for 2 minutes at 25 Hz. Two hundred microliters of a lysozyme solution (200 mg/ml) were then added to the mix, which was incubated at 37°C for 30 minutes. The following steps were performed according to the manufacturer's protocol.

16S amplicon sequencing

[0447] Amplification and sequencing of the VI- V2 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA was performed on total DNA from collected samples (n = 300) as previously described. (Devine, AA, Gonzalez, A, Speck, KE, Knight, R, Helmrath, M, Lund, PK, and Azcarate-Peril, MA. (2013) Impact of ileocecal resection and concomitant antibiotics on the microbiome of the murine jejunum and colon. PLoS One 8(8): e73140; Thompson, AL, Monteagudo-Mera, A, Cadenas, MB, Lampl, ML, and Azcarate Peril, MA. (2015) Milk- and solid-feeding practices and daycare attendance are associated with differences in bacterial diversity, predominant communities, and metabolic and immune function of the infant gut microbiome. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol.) Reaction master mixes contained the Qiagen Hotstar Hi-Fidelity Polymerase Kit (Qiagen, Valencia CA) with a forward primer composed of the Roche Titanium Fusion Primer A (5'-CCATCTCATCCCTGCGTGTCTCCGACTCAG-3'), a 10 bp Multiplex Identifier (MID) sequence (Roche, Indianapolis, IN), and the universal bacterial primer 8F (5'- AG AGTTTG ATCCTGGCTC AG- 3 ') · (Edwards, U, Rogall, T, Blocker, H, Emde, M, and Bottger, EC. (1989) Isolation and direct complete nucleotide determination of entire genes. Characterization of a gene coding for 16S ribosomal RNA. Nucleic Acids Res 17(19): 7843-53). The reverse primer was composed of the Roche Titanium Primer B (5'- CCTATCCCCTGTGTGCCTTGGCAGTCTCAG -3'), the identical 10 bp MID sequence, and the reverse bacterial primer 338R (5 ' - GCTGCCTCCCGTAGG AGT- 3 ' ) . (Fierer, N, Hamady, M, Lauber, CL, and Knight, R. (2008) The influence of sex, handedness, and washing on the diversity of hand surface bacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105(46): 17994-9). The 16S rDNA amplicons from the pooled sample were sequenced on a 454 Genome Sequencer FLX Titanium instrument (Roche, Indianapolis, IN) in the Microbiome Core Facility (University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC) using the GS FLX Titanium XLR70 sequencing reagents and corresponding protocols. Initial data analysis, base pair calling, and trimming of each sequence to yield high quality reads, were performed by Research Computing at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Sequencing data analysis

[0448] Bioinformatics analysis of 16S amplicon pyrosequencing data was conducted using the Quantitative Insights Into Microbial Ecology (QIEVIE v.1.8.0) software pipeline. (Caporaso, JG, Kuczynski, J, Stombaugh, J, Bittinger, K, Bushman, FD, Costello, EK, Fierer, N, Pena, AG, Goodrich, JK, Gordon, JI, Huttley, GA, Kelley, ST, Knights, D, Koenig, JE, Ley, RE, Lozupone, CA, McDonald, D, Muegge, BD, Pirrung, M, Reeder, J, Sevinsky, JR, Turnbaugh, PJ, Walters, WA, Widmann, J, Yatsunenko, T, Zaneveld, J, and Knight, R. (2010) QIIME allows analysis of high-throughput community sequencing data. Nat Methods 7(5): 335-6). The combined raw sequencing data were demultiplexed and filtered; all reads with lengths below 200 bp and with a quality score below 25 were removed. After chimera and singleton removal, sequences were clustered into operational taxonomic units (OTUs) at 97% similarity to approximate species-level phylotypes threshold using UCLUST, and aligned in order to build a phylogenetic tree. (Haas, BJ, Gevers, D, Earl, AM, Feldgarden, M, Ward, DV, Giannoukos, G, Ciulla, D, Tabbaa, D, Highlander, SK, Sodergren, E, Methe, B, DeSantis, TZ, Petrosino, JF, Knight, R, and Birren, BW. (2011) Chimeric 16S rRNA sequence formation and detection in Sanger and 454-pyrosequenced PCR amplicons. Genome research 21(3): 494-504; Edgar, RC. (2010) Search and clustering orders of magnitude faster than BLAST. Bioinformatics 26(19): 2460-1 ; Price, MN, Dehal, PS, and Arkin, AP. (2010) FastTree 2- approximately maximum- likelihood trees for large alignments. PLoS One 5(3): e9490). To ensure an even sampling depth, a random selection of 652 sequences from each sample was used for rarefaction analysis to measure alpha diversity using observed species (S) and Phylogenetic Diversity (PD) metrics on rarefied OTU tables. Eighteen samples had less than 652 reads/sample and were excluded from subsequent statistical analysis to identify differences in diversity and richness between groups. Beta diversity and principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) were also calculated within QIEVIE using Weighted and Unweighted Unifrac distances between samples at a depth of 652 sequences per sample to evaluate dissimilarities between the samples. (Lozupone, C, Hamady, M, and Knight, R. (2006) UniFrac-an online tool for comparing microbial community diversity in a phylogenetic context. BMC Bioinformatics 7: 371).

Bioinformatics analysis of gene functionality

[0449] The Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States (PICRUSt) (version 1.0.0) was used to infer metagenome functional content from 16S sequencing datasets. (Langille, MG, Zaneveld, J, Caporaso, JG, McDonald, D, Knights, D, Reyes, JA, Clemente, JC, Burkepile, DE, Vega Thurber, RL, Knight, R, Beiko, RG, and Huttenhower, C. (2013) Predictive functional profiling of microbial communities using 16S rRNA marker gene sequences. Nat Biotechnol 31(9): 814-21). OTUs were selected using the Closed Reference out, selecting in UCLUST within QIEVIE against the GreenGenes database. (Edgar, RC. (2010) Search and clustering orders of magnitude faster than BLAST. Bioinformatics 26(19): 2460-1). The OTU table was then normalized by dividing each OTU by the predicted 16S abundance before creating the metagenome functional predictions table. The PICRUSt output was used in HMP Unified Metabolic Analysis Network (HUMAnN) to identify and group metagenomic data according to Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways and their relative abundance. (Abubucker, S, Segata, N, Goll, J, Schubert, AM, Izard, J, Cantarel, BL, Rodriguez-Mueller, B, Zucker, J, Thiagarajan, M, Henrissat, B, White, O, Kelley, ST, Methe, B, Schloss, PD, Gevers, D, Mitreva, M, and Huttenhower, C. (2012) Metabolic reconstruction for metagenomic data and its application to the human microbiome. PLoS Comput Biol 8(6): el002358).

Bifidobacterium species detection by 24.192 Dynamic Array

[0450] The Acces array 24.192 (AA 24.192, Fluidigm Corporation, San Francisco, CA) was used in the UNC Advanced Analytics Core for high-throughput qPCR experiments to detect specific Bifidobacterium species. The bacterial strains were used as controls. Primers validated in previous studies were used to amplify the 16S ribosomal RNA and GroEL genes as previously described. (Hermann-Bank, ML, Skovgaard, K, Stockmarr, A, Larsen, N, and Molbak, L. (2013) The Gut Microbiotassay: a high-throughput qPCR approach combinable with next generation sequencing to study gut microbial diversity. BMC Genomics 14: 788; Junick, J and Blaut, M. Quantification of human fecal bifidobacterium species by use of quantitative realtime PCR analysis targeting the groEL gene. Appl Environ Microbiol 78(8): 2613-22; Kwon, H- S, Yang, E-H, Lee, S-H, Yeon, S-W, Kang, B-H, and Kim, T-Y. (2006) Rapid identification of potentially probiotic Bifidobacterium species by multiplex PCR using species-specific primers based on the region extending from 16S rRNA through 23 S rRNA. FEMS Microbiology Letters 250(1): 55-62; Matsuki, T, Watanabe, K, Fujimoto, J, Kado, Y, Takada, T, Matsumoto, K, and Tanaka, R. (2004) Quantitative PCR with 16S rRNA-gene-targeted species-specific primers for analysis of human intestinal bifidobacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 70(1): 167-73; Monteagudo-Mera, A, Arthur, JC, Jobin, C, Keku, TO, Bruno Barcena, JM, and Azcarate-Peril, MA. (2015) Stimulation of Bifidobacterium catenulatum by an enriched galactooligosaccharides (GOS) formulation In preparation).The taxonomic groups targeted in the array included: domain Bacteria, phylum Actinobacteria, genus Bifidobacterium and Bifidobacterium species. According to the manufacturer's guidelines, a pre- amplification (specific target amplification, STA) was performed before the Fluidigm Real-Time PCR to increase the template target yield. After the STA reaction, PCR products were diluted 5 times with TE buffer. Microfluidic qPCR was performed using a BioMark HD reader with a Dynamic Array 24.192 chip. The 24.192 chip was processed following the manufacturer instructions. Briefly, 3 μΐ of the sample premix (2X SsoFast Evagreen supermix, 20X DNA binding Dye and 1.35 μΐ 5-fold diluted STA products) and 3 μΐ of the assay premix (2X assay loading buffer, IX DNA suspension buffer, and 10μΜ each primer) were loaded into the chip according to the manufacturer's instructions. The Real- Time PCR was performed under the following conditions: 95°C 60 s, followed by 35 cycles of 96°C for 5 s and 60°C for 45 s. Statistical analyses

[0451] The distance matrix between OTUs was computed using Analysis of Similarities (ANOSEV1) and Permutational Multivariate Analysis of Variance (PERMANOVA) tests within QIIME to evaluate similarities or dissimilarities between groups. Paired t-tests were used to identify significant differences in Phylogenetic Diversity (PD) and Species richness (S) between the different time-points, while the Wilcoxon Signed test was used to identify significant differences in bacterial taxa and metagenome pathways between paired samples. All statistical analysis was performed in JMP genomics (SAS, JMP Genomics 10.0). P- values of less than 0.05 were considered significant unless otherwise stated. The Statistical Analysis of Metagenomic Profiles (STAMP) statistical tool was used to identify significant differences between groups in enzyme and pathways predicted by PICRUSt. (Parks, DH, Tyson, GW, Hugenholtz, P, and Beiko, RG. (2014) STAMP: statistical analysis of taxonomic and functional profiles. Bioinformatics 30(21): 3123-4). To identify features over or under represented in the different groups two-sided Welch's t-tests with Storey FDR were conducted to correct for multiple comparisons.

[0452] For high-throughput qPCR data, the relative proportion of Bifidobacterium species was computed based on the Livak method. Cq values for each sample were normalized against the Cq value for the Universal primers. Fold differences in the different Bifidobacterium species were calculated by 2 -AACt. Paired t-test and ANOVA with Tukey tests were conducted to assess statistically significant differences between groups.

Characterization of the gut microbiome of lactose intolerant individuals by 16S amplicon pyrosequencing

[0453] Microbiome metrics of fecal samples (n = 300) from patients enrolled in a randomized, double-blind, parallel group, placebo-controlled study conducted to test the effectiveness of RP-G28 in two sites in the United States were determined by 16S rRNA amplicon pyrosequencing. (Savaiano, DA, Ritter, AJ, Klaenhammer, TR, James, GM, Longcore,

AT, Chandler, JR, Walker, WA, and Foyt, HL. (2013) Improving lactose digestion and symptoms of lactose intolerance with a novel galacto-oligosaccharide (RP-G28): a randomized, double-blind clinical trial. Nutr J 12: 160). The study participants were adults ages 18 to 64 with a self-reported history of dairy intolerance. Exclusion criteria included diabetes mellitus, GI motility disorders, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), celiac disease, and surgery that altered normal funtion of the GI tract. (Savaiano, DA, Ritter, AJ,

Klaenhammer, TR, James, GM, Longcore, AT, Chandler, JR, Walker, WA, and Foyt, HL.

(2013) Improving lactose digestion and symptoms of lactose intolerance with a novel galacto- oligosaccharide (RP-G28): a randomized, double-blind clinical trial. Nutr J 12: 160). During the clinical trial participants avoided lactose in their diets and received escalating doses of the prebiotic (in 5 -day increments according to a fixed schedule from 1.5 grams to 15 grams per day). At day 36, participants stopped treatment and were encouraged to consume lactose/dairy until day 66. Sequencing data assigned the majority of Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) to the phyla Firmicutes (48.7 + 27.1%), Bacteroidetes (43.9 + 26%), and Proteobacteria (1.0 + 1.6%), while Fusobacteria, Tenericutes, Elusimicrobia, Actinobacteria, Synergistetes, Cyanobacteria, and Lentisphaerae were detected at levels <1% in agreement with previous reports of the human gut microbiome composition. (Qin, J, Li, R, Raes, J, Arumugam, M, Burgdorf, KS, Manichanh, C, Nielsen, T, Pons, N, Levenez, F, Yamada, T, Mende, DR, Li, J, Xu, J, Li, S, Li, D, Cao, J, Wang, B, Liang, H, Zheng, H, Xie, Y, Tap, J, Lepage, P, Bertalan, M, Batto, JM, Hansen, T, Le Paslier, D, Linneberg, A, Nielsen, HB, Pelletier, E, Renault, P, Sicheritz-Ponten, T, Turner, K, Zhu, H, Yu, C, Jian, M, Zhou, Y, Li, Y, Zhang, X, Qin, N, Yang, H, Wang, J, Brunak, S, Dore, J, Guarner, F, Kristiansen, K, Pedersen, O, Parkhill, J, Weissenbach, J, Bork, P, and Ehrlich, SD. (2010) A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 464(7285): 59-65). In addition, 5.5 + 4% of sequences were not assigned to any bacterial phylum.

[0454] Significant differences (ANOVA with Tukey pairwise comparisons p<0.05) were observed in Shannon diversity (H) and Species Richness (S) indexes between patients at different days. Specifically, samples at day 66 had significantly lower diversity and richness (H = 4.99 + 1.08 and S = 146.76 + 41.95) than samples at day 0 (H = 6.22 + 0.81 and S = 222.39 + 48.91) and day 36 (H = 6.14 + 0.86 and S = 221.61 44.5). Additionally, we observed lower H and S values at day 66 in individuals reporting cramping (H = 4.38 + 1.11 and S = 116.38 + 38.66) compared to individuals not reporting this symptom (H = 5.27 + 0.96 and S = 155.56 + 37.66). No significant associations were identified between diversity and richness indexes and sex or other GI symptoms (bloating, flatulence, diarrhea or pain).

[0455] Unweighted Unifrac similarity matrices and subsequent ANOSIM and PERMANOVA analyses indicated that the grouping of samples by individual patient was statistically significant (ANOSIM R = 0.7064, P = 0.0001, PERMANOVA Pseudo-F = 2.1239, P = 0.0001). Likewise, a significant association was found between Day (day 0 or baseline, and day 36 and 66 as categories) and microbiome composition (ANOSIM R = 0.218, P = 0.0001, PERMANOVA Pseudo-F = 3.4318, P = 0.0001). A small but statistically significant (ANOSIM R < 0.2, P <0.05, PERMANOVA Pseudo-F > 1, P = 0.0001) effect on variables was observed for the following factors: sex, weight, bloating, cramping, and pain, and combined strata day bloating, day cramping, and day pain. No effect was observed for the factors location, diarrhea, and flatulence.

Gut microbiome compositional impact of RP-G28

[0456] With the objective of identifying specific taxa affected by the prebiotic preparation and subsequent lactose consumption, pairwise comparisons at the phylum and genus levels between days 0, 36, and 66 were conducted. Significant differences (Wilcoxon signed rank-test with FDR correction p < 0.05) in the relative abundance of the phyla Fusobacteria and Actinobacteria were identified. Abundance of Fusobacteria decreased at days 36 and 66, while abundance of Actinobacteria showed a sharp decrease at day 66 (Figure 2).

[0457] A microbiome profiling analysis at the genus level was conducted, showing 36 genera significantly (Wilcoxon signed rank-test with FDR correction p < 0.05) or borderline significantly (Wilcoxon signed rank-test with FDR correction p > 0.05) differentially represented at 36 or 66 compared to day 0. Borderline significant over- or under- represented taxa were included in this analysis because the applied FDR correction tends to be over restrictive. The most impacted phylum was Firmicutes, with abundance of 25 genera modified at either time, followed by Proteobacteria (5 genera), Actinobacteria (4 genera), Bacteroidetes and Fusobacterium (1 genus each). In general, four different trends were observed in the relative representation of genera: 1) taxa that were over represented at day 36 but decreased at day 66; 2) taxa that were under represented at day 36 but increased at day 66; 3) taxa that showed a linear increase in relative abundance; and 4) taxa that showed a linear decrease in relative abundance. Genera included in the first group, which can be interepreted as enhanced by RP-G28 but suppressed by lactose, included three Actinobacteria lineages: Bifidobacterium, undefined Coriobacteriaceae, and Collinsella, only one Bacteroidetes (Prevotella), 4 Firmicutes: Granulicatella in the Lactobacillales order, Oscillospira and undefined Clostridiaceae in the Clostridiales order, and Catenibacterium in the Erysipelotrichales order. Group 1 also included 2 Proteobacteria and 1 Tenericutes genera. Group 2, which can be interpreted as taxa suppressed by the prebiotic but not by lactose (or may be induced by lactose) comprised most of the Firmicutes, including Roseburia and other potential butyrate producers. Also included in this group was Fusobacterium, a genus that has been widely associated with adenomas and colorectal cancer. (Castellarin, M, Warren, RL, Freeman, JD, Dreolini, L, Krzywinski, M, Strauss, J, Barnes, R, Watson, P, Allen- Vercoe, E, Moore, RA, and Holt, RA. (2011) Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma. Genome research; Kostic, AD, Gevers, D, Pedamallu, CS, Michaud, M, Duke, F, Earl, AM, Ojesina, AI, Jung, J, Bass, AJ, Tabernero, J, Baselga, J, Liu, C, Shivdasani, RA, Ogino, S, Birren, BW, Huttenhower, C, Garrett, WS, and Meyerson, M. (2011) Genomic analysis identifies association of Fusobacterium with colorectal carcinoma. Genome research; McCoy, AN, Araujo-Perez, F, Azcarate-Peril, A, Yeh, JJ, Sandler, RS, and Keku, TO. (2013) Fusobacterium is associated with colorectal adenomas. PLoS One 8(1): e53653). Group 3, which can be interpreted as long-term enhanced by the prebiotic, included the health-promoting genera Lactobacillus, Faecalibacterium, and undefined Christensenellaceae, a family enriched in individuals with low body mass index (BMI). (Goodrich, JK, Waters, JL, Poole, AC, Sutter, JL, Koren, O, Blekhman, R, Beaumont, M, Van Treuren, W, Knight, R, Bell, JT, Spector, TD, Clark, AG, and Ley, RE. (2014) Human genetics shape the gut microbiome. Cell 159(4): 789-99). It also included undefined Lachnospiraceae, Bulleidia, and a poorly characterized group of Tenericutes. Finally, Group 4, which followed a decreasing pattern and could be interpreted as suppressed by the treatment and by lactose consumption, included lineages that could be considered not beneficial like undefined Enterobacteriaceae, Streptococcus, and Clostridium, but also included undefined Coriobacteriaceae, Lachnospira, Anaerotruncus, Ruminococcus, and others.

Impact of RP-G28 on Bifidobacterium species of the human gut microbiome of lactose- intolerant individuals

[0458] Based on sequencing data, and since increased abundance of Bifidobacterium is the most reported benefit from prebiotic consumption, Bifidobacterium species in stool samples from lactose intolerant individuals clinically responsive to the dietary intervention with GOS/RP-G28 were identified and quantified. (Tzortzis, G, Goulas, AK, Baillon, ML, Gibson, GR, and Rastall, RA. (2004) In vitro evaluation of the fermentation properties of galactooligosaccharides synthesised by alpha-galactosidase from Lactobacillus reuteri. Applied microbiology and biotechnology 64(1): 106-11 ; Vulevic, J, Drakoularakou, A, Yaqoob, P, Tzortzis, G, and Gibson, GR. (2008) Modulation of the fecal microflora profile and immune function by a novel trans -galactooligosaccharide mixture (B-GOS) in healthy elderly volunteers. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 88(5): 1438-46). Two hundred and thirty eight (out of a total of 366 samples) corresponding to 56 patients at 3 time points (days 0, 36 and 66 ) were analyzed.

[0459] High-throughput qPCR data using specific 16S probes showed a significant increment in the relative abundance of the phylum Actinobacteria (increased an average of 25- fold in treatment samples), the family Bifidobacteriaceae (increased 14-fold) and the genus Bifidobacterium (increased 1-fold in average) in stool samples from individuals consuming RP- G28 at day 36 compared to controls (individuals at time 0 day). Abundance of these taxa returned to baseline (time 0) levels at day 66.

[0460] The relative abundance of phylum Actinobacteria may be increased at least 1- fold; 5-fold; 10-fold; 15-fold; 20-fold; 25-fold; 30-fold; 35-fold; 40-fold; 45-fold; or 50-fold by dietary intervention with GOS/RP-G28.

[0461] The relative abundance of family Bifidobacteriaceae may be increased by at least 1-fold; 5-fold; 10-fold; 14-fold; 15-fold; 20-fold; 25-fold; 30-fold; 35-fold; 40-fold; 45- fold; or 50-fold by dietary intervention with GOS/RP-G28.

[0462] The relative abundance of the genus Bifidobacterium may be increased at least 0.5-fold; 1-fold; 2-fold; 3-fold; 4-fold; or 5-fold by dietary intervention with GOS/RP-G28.

[0463] Quantification of B. bifidum, B. longum, B. dentium, B. adolescentis, B. angulatum, B. catenulatum, B. lactis, B. breve, and B. gallicum was carried out using species- specific 16S and groEL primers. The species B. longum (increased between 42 and 108-fold, according to data obtained with GroEL and 16S primers respectively), B. adolescentis (increased between 45 and 8,212-fold), B. catenulatum (increased between 25 and 1,874-fold), and B. breve (increased an average of 46-fold detected by the GroEL probe), and were significantly over represented at day 36 compared to time 0 while abundance of B. dentium was significantly higher at day 66. Abundance of B. lactis and B. gallicum also increased at day 36 but changes did not reach statistical significance.

[0464] The relative abundance of species B. longum may be increased at least 1-fold; 5-fold; 10-fold; 15-fold; 20-fold; 25-fold; 30-fold; 35-fold; 40-fold; 45-fold; 50-fold; 55-fold; 60-fold; 65-fold; 70-fold; 75-fold; 80-fold; 85-fold; 90-fold; 95-fold; 100-fold; 105-fold; 110- fold; 115-fold; 120-fold; 125-fold; 130-fold; 135-fold; 140-fold; 145-fold; or 150-fold by dietary intervention with GOS/RP-G28.

[0465] The relative abundance of family B. adolescentis may be increased by at least 500-fold; 1000-fold;; 2500-fold 5000-fold; 6000-fold; 7000-fold; 7500-fold;; 8000-fold; 9000- fold; 10,000-fold by dietary intervention with GOS/RP-G28.

[0466] The relative abundance of the genus B. catenulatum may be increased at least; 250-fold;; 500-fold;; 1000-fold;; 2000-fold;; 3000-fold; 4000-fold; 5000-fold by dietary intervention with GOS/RP-G28.

[0467] The relative abundance of species B. breve may be increased at least 1-fold; 5-fold; 10-fold; 15-fold; 20-fold; 25-fold; 30-fold; 35-fold; 40-fold; 45-fold; 50-fold; 55-fold; 60-fold; 65-fold; 70-fold; 75-fold; 80-fold; 85-fold; 90-fold; 95-fold; 100-fold; 105-fold; 110- fold; 115-fold; 120-fold; 125-fold; 130-fold; 135-fold; 140-fold; 145-fold; or 150-fold by dietary intervention with GOS/RP-G28.

[0468] The relative abundance of species B. lactis may be increased at least 1-fold; 5- fold; 10-fold; 15-fold; 20-fold; 25-fold; 30-fold; 35-fold; 40-fold; 45-fold; 50-fold; 55-fold; 60- fold; 65-fold; 70-fold; 75-fold; 80-fold; 85-fold; 90-fold; 95-fold; 100-fold; 105-fold; 110-fold; 115-fold; 120-fold; 125-fold; 130-fold; 135-fold; 140-fold; 145-fold; or 150-fold by dietary intervention with GOS/RP-G28.

[0469] The relative abundance of species B. gallicum may be increased at least 1- fold; 5-fold; 10-fold; 15-fold; 20-fold; 25-fold; 30-fold; 35-fold; 40-fold; 45-fold; 50-fold; 55- fold; 60-fold; 65-fold; 70-fold; 75-fold; 80-fold; 85-fold; 90-fold; 95-fold; 100-fold; 105-fold; 110-fold; 115-fold; 120-fold; 125-fold; 130-fold; 135-fold; 140-fold; 145-fold; or 150-fold by dietary intervention with GOS/RP-G28.

[0470] A linear fit analysis was performed to assess the correlation between the 16S rRNA and GroEL primers for detection of the same Bifidobacterium species. The analysis indicated a good correlation (Pearson's r value > 0.70) for B. longum, B. adolescentis, B. bifidum, B. angulatum, and B. gallicum, while lower correlation indices (Pearson's r < 0.70) were observed for B. catenulatum, B. lactis, B. dentium, and B. breve.

[0471] A previous study reported that the bifidogenic response to galacto- oligosaccharides (GOS) occurred consistently in 50% of subjects fed a daily dose of 5 g/day ("responders"), whereas the other subjects were consistent "non-responders." In this study, the longitudinal analysis of treated individuals showed that 86% (19/22) had a bifidogenic response with only three clear non-responders.

Predictive analysis of bacterial metabolic functions impacted by RP-G28

[0472] To determine potential bacterial functions impacted by prebiotic feeding and subsequent dairy incorporation to the diet, Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States (PICRUSt) was used, which predicts metagenome functional content from 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing input data. PCoA analysis of families of KEGG orthologs, showed that overall functional categories did not vary based on treatment/day groups (data not shown). (Predictive functional profiling of microbial communities using 16S rRNA marker gene sequences. Langille, M. G.I.*; Zaneveld, J.*; Caporaso, J. G.; McDonald, D.; Knights, D.; a Reyes, J.; Clemente, J. C; Burkepile, D. E.; Vega Thurber, R. L.; Knight, R.; Beiko, R. G.; and Huttenhower, C. Nature Biotechnology, 1-10. 8 2013). Out of 6909 identified KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Gene Systems) orthologs none was significantly (corrected P < 0.05) over- or under- represented between at day 36 compared to day 0. However, 18 features were differentially represented at day 66 compared to day 36, and 6 at day 66 compared to day 0. KEGG orthologs over or under represented at day 66 compared to day 36 included enzymes involved in the synthesis of amino acids (phosphoribosylanthranilate isomerase, anthranilate synthase, homoserine kinase, phosphoribosyl-AMP cyclohydrolase), maturation of ribosomes (ribonuclease M5, ribonuclease G), nucleotide (purine-nucleosidase phosphorylase) and carbohydrate (N-acetylneuraminate lyase, PTS cellobiose- specific ΠΑ component [cellobiose is structurally similar to lactose. Beta glucosidase converts cellobiose to glucose], and beta-glucosidase) metabolisms, and other less characterized enzymes. Six KEGG orthologs were differentially represented at day 66 compared to day 0. Of those, 4 were also differentially represented in the comparison between days 36 and 66, a myo-inositol 2-dehydrogenase (an enzyme involved in streptomycin biosynthesis and the metabolism of inositol phosphate) and a ribonuclease D were over represented at day 0.

[0473] While preferred embodiments have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the descriptions presented herein. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments described herein can be employed in practicing the methods, systems, and compositions described herein. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the present disclosure and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.

[0474] While preferred embodiments have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the descriptions provided herein. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments described herein can be employed in practicing the methods, systems, and compositions of the present disclosure.

Claims

WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A method for assessing efficacy of an oligosaccharide mixture in improving gastrointestinal health, the method comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition comprising one or more indigestible oligosaccharides and less than about 20% digestible saccharides by weight and measuring a change in at least one abdominal symptom.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the abdominal symptom is abdominal pain.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the abdominal symptom is abdominal cramping.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the abdominal symptom is abdominal bloating.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the abdominal symptom is abdominal gas.

6. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is mammalian.

7. The method of any one of claims 1 to 6, wherein a change is measured in at least two abdominal symptoms.

8. The method of any one of claims 1 to 6, wherein a change is measured in at least three abdominal symptoms.

9. The method of any one of claims 1 to 6, wherein a change is measured in at least four or more abdominal symptoms.

10. The method of any one of claims 1 to 9, wherein the composition comprises less than 10% digestible saccharides.

11. The method of any one of claims 1 to 10, wherein the composition comprises less than 5% digestible saccharides.

12. The method of any one of claims 1 to 11, wherein the change in the at least one abdominal symptom is measured at least 30 days after a first administration of the composition.

13. The method of any one of claims 1 to 11, wherein the change in the at least one abdominal symptom is measured at least 60 days after a first administration of the composition.

14. The method of any one of claims 1 to 13, wherein the change in the at least one abdominal symptom is compared to a change in at least one abdominal symptom for a subject receiving a placebo.

15. The method of any one of claims 1 to 14, wherein the change in the at least one abdominal symptom is measured following a lactose challenge test (SZA).

16. The method of claim 15, wherein the change in the at least one abdominal symptom is measured 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 hours after a lactose challenge test (SZA).

17. A method to assess efficacy of an oligosaccharide mixture in improving gastrointestinal health, the method comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition comprising one or more indigestible oligosaccharides and less than about 20% digestible saccharides by weight and measuring a change in stool form consistency.

18. The method of claim 17, wherein the change in stool form consistency is measured using the Bristol Stool Form Scale.

19. The method of claim 17 or 18, wherein the composition comprises less than 10% digestible saccharides.

20. The method of claim 18 or 19, wherein the composition comprises less than 5% digestible saccharides.

21. The method of any one of claims 18 to 20, wherein the change in stool form consistency is measured at least 30 days after a first administration of the composition.

22. The method of any one of claims 18 to 20, wherein the change in stool form consistency is measured at least 60 days after a first administration of the composition.

23. The method of any one of claims 18 to 22, wherein the change in stool form consistency is compared to a change stool form consistency for a subject receiving a placebo.

24. The method of any one of claims 18 to 23, wherein the change in stool form consistency is measured following a lactose challenge test (SZA).

25. The method of claim 24, wherein the change in stool form consistency is measured 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 hours after a lactose challenge test (SZA).

26. An oral dosage form comprising less than about 18% by weight of a combination of GOSl and GOS2, about 20% to about 35% by weight of GOS3, about 50% to about 65% by weight of GOS4, and less than about 4% by weight of a combination of GOS 5 and GOS6; wherein said composition further comprises less than 5% digestible saccharides.

27. The oral dosage form of claim 26, wherein said composition does not contain an excipient or a preservative.