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WO2002058554A1 - Methode et systeme permettant de determiner la fonctionnalite de l'hemisphere dominant neurologique endogene et utilisation de telles informations pour des therapeutiques et pour la commande de protheses et de la robotique - Google Patents

Methode et systeme permettant de determiner la fonctionnalite de l'hemisphere dominant neurologique endogene et utilisation de telles informations pour des therapeutiques et pour la commande de protheses et de la robotique Download PDF

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Publication number
WO2002058554A1
WO2002058554A1 PCT/US2001/042346 US0142346W WO02058554A1 WO 2002058554 A1 WO2002058554 A1 WO 2002058554A1 US 0142346 W US0142346 W US 0142346W WO 02058554 A1 WO02058554 A1 WO 02058554A1
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subject
hemisphere
handedness
dominant
brain
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Iraj Derakhshan
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Mimicking Man Manually Inc
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Mimicking Man Manually Inc
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    • G—PHYSICS
    • G06—COMPUTING OR CALCULATING; COUNTING
    • G06N—COMPUTING ARRANGEMENTS BASED ON SPECIFIC COMPUTATIONAL MODELS
    • G06N3/00—Computing arrangements based on biological models
    • G06N3/02—Neural networks
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61F—FILTERS IMPLANTABLE INTO BLOOD VESSELS; PROSTHESES; DEVICES PROVIDING PATENCY TO, OR PREVENTING COLLAPSING OF, TUBULAR STRUCTURES OF THE BODY, e.g. STENTS; ORTHOPAEDIC, NURSING OR CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICES; FOMENTATION; TREATMENT OR PROTECTION OF EYES OR EARS; BANDAGES, DRESSINGS OR ABSORBENT PADS; FIRST-AID KITS
    • A61F2/00—Filters implantable into blood vessels; Prostheses, i.e. artificial substitutes or replacements for parts of the body; Appliances for connecting them with the body; Devices providing patency to, or preventing collapsing of, tubular structures of the body, e.g. stents
    • A61F2/50—Prostheses not implantable in the body
    • A61F2/68—Operating or control means
    • A61F2/70—Operating or control means electrical
    • A61F2/72—Bioelectric control, e.g. myoelectric
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61F—FILTERS IMPLANTABLE INTO BLOOD VESSELS; PROSTHESES; DEVICES PROVIDING PATENCY TO, OR PREVENTING COLLAPSING OF, TUBULAR STRUCTURES OF THE BODY, e.g. STENTS; ORTHOPAEDIC, NURSING OR CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICES; FOMENTATION; TREATMENT OR PROTECTION OF EYES OR EARS; BANDAGES, DRESSINGS OR ABSORBENT PADS; FIRST-AID KITS
    • A61F2/00—Filters implantable into blood vessels; Prostheses, i.e. artificial substitutes or replacements for parts of the body; Appliances for connecting them with the body; Devices providing patency to, or preventing collapsing of, tubular structures of the body, e.g. stents
    • A61F2/50—Prostheses not implantable in the body
    • A61F2/68—Operating or control means
    • A61F2/70—Operating or control means electrical
    • A61F2002/704—Operating or control means electrical computer-controlled, e.g. robotic control
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61F—FILTERS IMPLANTABLE INTO BLOOD VESSELS; PROSTHESES; DEVICES PROVIDING PATENCY TO, OR PREVENTING COLLAPSING OF, TUBULAR STRUCTURES OF THE BODY, e.g. STENTS; ORTHOPAEDIC, NURSING OR CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICES; FOMENTATION; TREATMENT OR PROTECTION OF EYES OR EARS; BANDAGES, DRESSINGS OR ABSORBENT PADS; FIRST-AID KITS
    • A61F2/00—Filters implantable into blood vessels; Prostheses, i.e. artificial substitutes or replacements for parts of the body; Appliances for connecting them with the body; Devices providing patency to, or preventing collapsing of, tubular structures of the body, e.g. stents
    • A61F2/50—Prostheses not implantable in the body
    • A61F2/68—Operating or control means
    • A61F2/70—Operating or control means electrical
    • A61F2002/705—Electromagnetic data transfer

Definitions

  • the present invention relates generally to methods for determining the dominant cerebral hemisphere of a subject and in particular, to novel methods and systems for recognizing and implementing a subject's dominant hemisphere for therapeutic and other uses.
  • a method and system for determining the dominant cerebral hemisphere of a subject there is provided a method and system for using information obtained regarding hemisphere dominance for programming electronic devices such as robots, prostheses, as well as methods for using such information during treatment and surgical procedures in order to obtain superior function and/or movement when there is injury or disease to an area of the brain.
  • the present invention employs a vectorial view of the role of callosum in the underpinning lateralities of speech and handedness, and as such, provides a technical definition of handedness (i.e., which hemisphere of the cerebrum is dominant in a particular individual subject). This technical definition is then used to completely accurately replicate or predict voluntary and involuntary movements of the subject and this information, in turn, can be utilized in the field of prosthetics and robotics in order to obtain more accurate depiction of brain function and hence, more authentic replication of movement.
  • Figure 1 illustrates how signals recorded from a human subject's motor cortex are translated into an artificial neural network to control a robotic arm according to the present invention.
  • Crossed aphasia is present when the manifest handedness of a subject demands its absence, while crossed nonaphasia denotes absence of aphasia when the manifest handedness of subject demands its presence.
  • the vectorial theory exposed herein is based in large part upon the existence a "devoted neuronal aggregate" (referred to herein as "DNA") for executive functions (i.e. speech and handedness) amalgamated within the motor apparatus of each hemisphere with its major moiety in the dominant hemisphere and the minor moiety in the minor hemisphere, mediating bimanual coordination via the callosum.
  • DNA devoted neuronal aggregate
  • RNA real neurological address
  • the DNA is considered as one entity, the division of which is occasioned by the existence of a gap (i.e. callosum) between its two moieties.
  • a gap i.e. callosum
  • the dominant hemisphere can be found using tests according to the Poffenberger paradigm such as disclosed in Marzi, "The Poffenberger Paradigm: A first, simple behvioural tool to study interhemispheric transmission in humans," Brain Research Bulletin. Vol. 50 Nos. 5/6 pp. 421-422 (1999), the content of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
  • the dominant hemisphere can be found utilizing Positron Emission Tomography Scanning ["PET”], Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging ["FMRI”], Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation ["TMS”] or according to Poffenberger' s Method. All of these methods are well known in the art.
  • crossed aphasia and crossed nonaphasia find their solution in employing a vectorial view of analysis.
  • the classical theory assumed complete isolation of each hemisphere when performing tasks involving isuomotor sites located within the same hemisphere.
  • the vectorial view of the present invention provides that all voluntary movements begin from the dominant hemisphere regardless of which hand is used to perform a task.
  • a devoted neuronal aggregate for executive functions i.e.
  • RNA real neurological address
  • the DNA as one entity, and is divided by a gap (i.e. callosum) between its two moieties. Since most people are left hemisphere dominant, the major moiety of the DNA within the left hemisphere of their brains makes them left hemisphere dominant for speech and right handed for dexterity. The situation is the reversed for left handers.
  • RNA interhemispheric transfer time
  • IHTT interhemispheric transfer time
  • the two DNA moieties are part and parcel of the same substrate, an involvement of the major moiety is associated with bilateral manifestation of the effect of that lesion while the involvement of the minor moiety, or the liaison between the two moieties, will manifest itself only at one side; i.e. contralaterally.
  • Transhemispheric diaschisis and the facilitating nature of the neuronal connection between the moieties of the DNA indicates that there should be circumstances in which manifestation of deafferentation of the minor hemisphere is seen ipsilateral to a lesion with or without the presence of an excitatory phenomenon on the opposite side of the body.
  • Tables 1-3 attached hereto are products of an exhaustive review of literature in support of vectorial view's assumptions/predictions, as seen at the bedside. hi accordance with the present invention, principles similar or identical to those described in Amirikian et al, "Cortical Populations and Behavior: Hebb's Thread" Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, pp.
  • monkey brains are analyzed in connection with powering a robotic arm. Monkeys do not display handedness characteristics in the same manner as human beings (approximately 50% of monkeys are left handed and 50% are right handed), and as such, there is no relevance in a monkey's handedness in mapping its brain signals that determine movement.
  • the dominant hemisphere the actual wiring of which lobe of the cerebrum dominates the handedness in a human being is very critical in simulating movement that is realistic. That is, movement is tied very greatly to which hemisphere of the brain is dominant.
  • the instant inventor has found that one must first make a determination of the dominant hemisphere of the subject and modify the formation of the artificial neural network accordingly.
  • Amirikian employs a vectorial neural calculation where a preferred vector represents the contribution of a directionally tuned cell and points in the cell's preferred direction; cell vectors are weighed by the change in cell activity during a particular movement; and the sum of these vectors (i.e., the population vector) provides the unique outcome of the ensemble coding operation. See Amirikian, p. 21-22 and Figure 1 thereof.
  • the present invention takes the theory of Amirikian one step further by implementing a vectorial neural code wherein first a determination of the true dominant hemisphere of the human subject being analyzed is made. Then a vectorial map is prepared using computerized techniques similar to those described, for example, in U.S. Patent Nos. 6,171,239 and 6,169,981, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties, hi addition, devices and methods can be adapted for use with the present invention such as those described in Wessburg et al., "Real-time prediction of hand trajectory by ensembles of cortical neurons in primates" Nature. 2000 Nov 16;408(6810):361-5, PMID: 11099043; Chapin JK.
  • the top left part of Figure 1 illustrates a human exerting a force against an immovable handle in one (180 degrees) of eight instructed directions.
  • An example of the motor cortical activity recorded while the human performed this task is represented in the bottom left panel.
  • the spike trains were recorded for different trials but for the same instructed direction of force.
  • These neuronal signals drive the simulated actuator sketched in the top right part of the figure.
  • a three-layered feedforward neural network transform cortical signals into coordinated activation of actuator muscles.
  • Activities of units at the input layer are the spike trains taken as they are from an experimentally obtained data file. This data file is preprogrammed to compensate for the dominant hemisphere of the subject being evaluated based on the signal readings being recorded.
  • the cortical activity converges in four model units located at the intermediate layer.
  • the data obtained in the Poffenberger test is analyzed by applying a vectorial analysis comprising determining the handedness of the subject wherein negative crossed uncrossed differential (CUD) translate to a finding that all voluntary movements originate from the left hemisphere in true right handers (and the other way around in real left handers). Since there is no difference in signal detection between the two hemispheres, the temporal ranking order from signal to movement is employed to categorize such subject as VF/rh, uncrossed, and VF/lh, crossed in a right hand.
  • CCD negative crossed uncrossed differential
  • the present method can be taken many steps further such as for controlling prosthetic and robotic devices as described, for example, in Sanes, "The Relation between Human Brain Activity and Hand Movements," Neurolmage 11, 370-374 (2000) (incorporated herein by reference in its entirety); for driving a muscle driven communication device as described in Birbaumer et al, Nature, Vol 398 pp. 297-298 (March 1999) (incorporated herein by reference in its entirety); using recorded NPs to control external movement devices Chawla et al, "The Physiological Basis of Attentional Modulation in Extrastriate Visual Areas," Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 2, No. 7 pp.
  • control robotics such as real time control of a robotic arm as described in Chapin et al, "Real Time Control of a Robot Arm Using Simultaneously Recorded Neurons in the Motor Cortex," Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 2, No. 7 pp. 664-668 (July 1999) (incorporated herein by reference in its entirety); and also use neural population signals for real time control of robotic devices, both locally and through the Internet as described in Wessberg et al, "Real Time Prediction of Hand Trajectory by Ensembles of Cortical Neurons in Primates," Nature, Vol. 408, pp. 361-365 (Nov. 2000) (incorporated herein by reference in its entirety).
  • certain functionalities could be provided according to the methods set forth in U.S. Patent No. 6,169,981, the content of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
  • the present invention would permit a subject to control a device based on the subject's "intention” or based on “imagination.” That is, the subject would imagine some action, and by measuring the brain waves according to known techniques and compensating for the dominant hemisphere origination of movement as disclosed herein, a prosthesis or robot could undertake the activity that is imagined or intended. According to the present invention, any intentional activity is known to originate from the dominant hemisphere. Therefore, according to methods and apparatus contemplated herein, robotics or prostheses would be controlled according to known techniques such as disclosed in U.S. Patent No.
  • the human brain is an exceedingly complex processing system, which integrates continual streams of incoming sensory input data with stored memories, uses the input data and memories in complex decision processes at both conscious and unconscious levels, and on the basis of these processes generates observable behaviors by activation of its motor or movement control pathways and the muscles which these innervate.
  • signals generated by the cells may be "exteriorized” and used for the control of external prostheses, such as an assist robot or an artificial arm, or functional electrical stimulation paralyzed muscles.
  • the brain signals measured according to the present invention include neuronal signals derived from a population of cells devoted to executive functions. These signals may be electrical or may be derived from the metabolic activity of these cells. Such measurements can be made, for example, by employing fMRI or PET scanning technologies.
  • those signals that are derived from the cells devoted to executive function are the most important and are those that are screened or filtered to the device that has been programmed to compensate for the true handedness of the individual whose thought pattern or desired activity is sought to be mimiced.
  • this system should include surgically implanted "tiny" electrodes or sensors, which can be placed in close proximity to the cells that generate command signals for voluntary movement.
  • any type of measurement device can be used to measure the electrical impulses coming from the brain. Wliat is of utmost importance here is that there is first a determination of the dominant hemisphere of the subject using the techniques described herein. Then, when the electronic impulses are measured and inputted into the electronics that control the prosthesis or robot, there is a compensation for voluntary and involuntary movements to take into account the dominant hemisphere. That is, there is provided an algorithm that automatically determines which hemisphere is sending signals and determining whether a particular intention or imagination of the subject is voluntary or involuntary so that the appropriate action of the prosthesis or robot is accomplished with the highest degree of accuracy.
  • the preffered method of present invention is capable of obtaining the neuronal signals that are specific to executive functions. These signals are then mapped and categorized to determine the actual dominant hemisphere.
  • any methodology that employs a mechanism for neuroelectronic systems to be used for neuroprosthetics or the like would also be useful in the present invention.
  • the systems described here are adaptable to a variety of signals from the brain or central nervous system as diverse as a) neurally generated electrical signals, recorded with microelectrode technologies from within the brain or with surface electrodes from extracranial sites; and/or (b) measures of localized blood flow that are correlated with neural activity, if techniques for miniaturization of current devices for making such measurements, in real time, are developed in the future.
  • the external devices may include any device that can be controlled by processed electrical signals. These devices include, but are not limited to, artificial or prosthetic limbs; computer controlled, functional electrical stimulation of muscles of paralyzed individuals for the restoration of movement; robots or robotics components; computers or computer displays; or the teleoperation of robots and machines in hostile environments.
  • a preferred embodiment of the invention represents a unique blend of technologies from the fields of neuro- or electro-physiology, biomaterials science, neural signal processing, functional brain imaging (to guide implantation of sensors), and robotics or prosthetics. Included in the embodiment is a unique recording arrangement with bundles of six to ten small (20-50 .mu.m in diameter), insulated, and flexible, noble metal wires that are arranged in a parallel or twisted array. The wire bundles are constructed so that each recording wire can collect multicellular signals from a small cluster of neurons, with tips that are incremental in length, so that many recording sites can be sampled along a single line of bundle insertion into the brain.
  • software routines are used to perform specific signal correlation, adaptation, and distribution as part of a general recalibration procedure.
  • a unique signal processing method is provided to convert recorded neural signals into a resultant signal that is useful for control of an external device.
  • the present system incorporates neural net software routines to map actual neural signals onto desired movement functions with greater accuracy than ever possible before due to the preliminary determination of the dominant hemisphere of the subject so as to find the "real neurological address.” This real neurological address or devoted neuronal aggregate is programmed into the device so as to compensate for the fact all executive functions and all volitional activities originate from the dominant hemisphere.
  • a robot arm is controlled by the neural signals recorded directly from the voluntary movement (motor) control areas of the cerebral cortex of a subject.
  • many of the animal studies employing monkeys and other animals are not as useful since humans are different than other mammals when it comes to dominant hemisphere activity. That is, in monkeys, for example, generally 50% are left hemisphere dominant, while the other 50% are right hemisphere dominant.
  • the dominant brain hemisphere of other animals is determined randomly and without result to activity or effect. However, as is well known, most humans are right handed (up to 90% or so).
  • the control of robotics or prosthetics based on an initial determination of the handedness (i.e. the dominant hemisphere of the brain) will enormously effect the accuracy of the ultimate activity of the device being moved thereby, now that volitional control is understood to originate from the dominant hemisphere of a human being.
  • the present method would include a compensation for hemispheric dominance based on applying a vectorial analysis comprising determining the handedness of the subject wherein crossed uncrossed differential (CUD), properly interpreted to account for negative values, translates to a finding that all voluntary movements originate from the left hemisphere in true right handers (and the other way around in real left handers).
  • CUD crossed uncrossed differential
  • Negative CUD means that the subject's real neurological address is different from his adopted handedness. Correcting this mistake changes the negative into a positive value and makes the accuracy of replicating the individual's thought pattern much more reliable.
  • Such a compensation was never employed in prior utilizations, and hence, the present method is more accurately represents true brain activity based on hemispheric dominance.
  • a medium comprising a recorded neuronal signal.
  • a neuronal signal can be obtained by obtaining neuronal signals derived from a population of brain cells devoted to executive functions of a human subject and recording the thus obtained signal into a suitable recording medium.
  • the implanted microwires would preferably comprise microwire arrays and would be implanted in multiple cortical areas, i.e. , the left dorsal premotor cortex, left primary motor cortex, left posterior parietal cortex, right PMd and MI and right PP cortex, for example. Cortical recordings would be made and the data would be accessed and transformed into computer readable code for programming into the desired end use such as robotics or prosthetics.
  • the negative crossed uncrossed differential will be compensated for by providing that all voluntary activity of a right hander is generated by an electrical wave in the left side of the brain, and vice versa for left handers.
  • This information will be incorporated into the analysis of the data received from the cortical recordings so as to provide a more accurate depiction of how the brain in the particular subject being assessed functions in terms of voluntary movement.
  • the present method starts with utilizing the test set forth by the Poffenberger paradigm, which is well known in the art since 1912.
  • the Pofferberger test involves bilateral simultaneous or unilateral key pressing/releasing or other manual exercises, measuring simple or choice (discriminative) reactions times, with a temporal resolution in milliseconds. WTiereas the use of questionnaires in arbitrarily defining ones laterality has been questioned on several grounds (1) including the nonconformity of the results with performance tests.
  • the use of some version of Poffenberger paradigm has given consistent results whenever, by good luck, it was done in a cohort of uniform handedness.
  • the vectorial approach allows further refining of the procedure by deciphering the puzzle of negative crossed uncrossed differential (CUD), as follows: Contrary to the classical view that appendicular movements are handled by the opposite hemisphere, according to the present invention, all voluntary movements originate from the left hemisphere in true right handers (and the other way around in real left handers). Acknowledging the fact that there is no difference in signal detection between the two hemispheres, the temporal ranking order from signal to movement in the vectorial scheme is different from that in the classical scheme (there being only two categories instead of four, i.e. VF/rh, uncrossed, and VF/lh, crossed in a right hand).
  • the vectorial view of the callosal traffic underlying lateralities of executive functions states that the said laterality is based on the directionality of neural traffic connecting the two moieties of an apportioned neuronal aggregate devoted to these functions.
  • the hemisphere that houses the larger moiety becomes the dominant hemisphere for these deliberate functions, literally driving the minor moiety amalgamated within the motor apparatus of the minor hemisphere. It is asserted that the two moieties are part and parcel of the same neuronal aggregate devoted to executive functions and that the said anatomic arrangement is occasioned merely by the existence of a gap between them (i.e. callosum).
  • the vectorial view recognizes the nature of such connection as excitatory, based on the evidence adduced later on.
  • the apportioning of the devoted neuronal aggregate (DNA) housed within the motor apparatus of each hemisphere that constitutes the anatomy of lateralities in speech and manual preference.
  • the left hemisphere contains the major moiety of the devoted aggregate in the vast maj ority of the population, rendering most subj ects right handed in dexterity and left hemispheric for speech. It follows that the inheritability of executive functions will depend on the apportioning of the devoted neuronal aggregate distributed between the two hemispheres.
  • the issue of existence of an ipsilateral pathway from the motor cortex to the anterior horn is still being debated, but the existence of a functioning ipsilateral influence in childhood seems to have been established, which normally matures and becomes masked by age 10, and unmasked when damage occurs.
  • the "primary motor cortex” (Ml) is said to be comprised of 3 contiguous but distinct areas related to arm, leg and face. Some have ascribed a cognitive role to this area which previously was considered only as a final common pathway to spinal motor neurons (Sanes and Donoghue, p 406).
  • Kernohan's patients with supratentorial lesion had no notching of the peduncle and that notching in his series was by no means always associated with ipsilateral clinical signs (18 of 40 notches were asymptomatic). Kernohan does not suggest that a notching of cerebral peduncle does not cause any symptoms. WTiat is asserted is that for a weakness to occur, ipsilateral to a (dominant) hemispheric lesion notching is neither necessary nor sufficient, as a careful reading of Kernohan 's own data will show.
  • the present invention provides a technical and operational definition of handedness inspired by the vectorial view, substantiated by observations summarized in tables 1-3, and by electrophysiological investigations mentioned above: It is the right hand (in the vast majority of people) that volunteers firsts (and the left acts in coordination with it when the need arises). Clearly the anatomy mandates an earlier activation of the right hand giving it an ever-renewed priority in gaining experience by practice, constantly maintaining the synaptic efficiency of its cortical representation.
  • the correct temporal rank order therefore, have 2 categories: VF/rh and VF/lh for uncrossed and crossed (respectively) in dextrals and VF/lh and VF/rh as uncrossed and crossed in sinistrals.
  • the Poffenberger test can be conducted.
  • "Negative CUD” as used in the Poffenberger implies a faster infra-hemispheric than inter- hemispheric conduction.
  • a negative CUD suggested either an impurity of handedness within the examined population group due to admixture of real and manifest (left or right) handers, or 277) confusion in rank ordering of pathway used in determining a particular subject's crossed and uncrossed differences; i.e. RVF/rh in a right hander ranks differently from the same in a left hander; same applies for LVF/lh in two subjects of different laterality in motor control.
  • High resolution EEG confirms that negative CUD can be compensated for as described herein.

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Abstract

La présente invention concerne une méthode et un système permettant de déterminer l'hémisphère cérébral dominant d'un sujet. L'invention concerne également une méthode et un système permettant d'utiliser des informations obtenues concernant la dominance de l'hémisphère de manière à programmer des dispositifs électroniques tels que des robots, des prothèses, ainsi que des méthodes permettant l'utilisation de telles informations lors de procédures thérapeutiques et d'interventions chirurgicales de manière à obtenir une fonction et/ou un mouvement supérieurs lors de la blessure ou de la maladie d'une région du cerveau. La présente invention fait appel à une vue vectorielle du rôle du corps calleux dans les latéralités de soutien de la parole et de la chiralité, et en tant que telle, concerne une définition technique de la chiralité (c'est-à-dire, quelle hémisphère du cerveau est dominant chez un individu particulier). Cette définition technique est ensuite utilisée pour répliquer ou prédire précisément, de manière complète, des mouvements volontaires du sujet et ces informations, à leur tour, peuvent être utilisées dans le domaine des prothèses et de la robotique de manière à obtenir une représentation plus précise de la fonction cérébrale et par conséquent, une réplication plus authentique du mouvement.
PCT/US2001/042346 2001-01-23 2001-09-28 Methode et systeme permettant de determiner la fonctionnalite de l'hemisphere dominant neurologique endogene et utilisation de telles informations pour des therapeutiques et pour la commande de protheses et de la robotique Ceased WO2002058554A1 (fr)

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Citations (2)

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US6171239B1 (en) * 1998-08-17 2001-01-09 Emory University Systems, methods, and devices for controlling external devices by signals derived directly from the nervous system

Patent Citations (2)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US6132361A (en) * 1994-11-28 2000-10-17 Neotonus, Inc. Transcranial brain stimulation
US6171239B1 (en) * 1998-08-17 2001-01-09 Emory University Systems, methods, and devices for controlling external devices by signals derived directly from the nervous system

Non-Patent Citations (1)

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Title
KLEMM ET AL.: "Hemispheric lateralization and handedness correlation of human evoked 'steady-state' responses to patterned visual stimuli", PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY, vol. 8, no. 3, 1980, pages 409 - 416, XP002952112 *

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