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US8993998B2 - Electro-optic device having nanowires interconnected into a network of nanowires - Google Patents

Electro-optic device having nanowires interconnected into a network of nanowires Download PDF

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US8993998B2
US8993998B2 US13/841,367 US201313841367A US8993998B2 US 8993998 B2 US8993998 B2 US 8993998B2 US 201313841367 A US201313841367 A US 201313841367A US 8993998 B2 US8993998 B2 US 8993998B2
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optic device
nanowires
electrode
transparent
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US20140084266A1 (en
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Yang Yang
Rui Zhu
Chun Chao Chen
Letian Dou
Gang Li
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University of California San Diego UCSD
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    • Y10S977/932—Specified use of nanostructure for electronic or optoelectronic application

Definitions

  • the field of the currently claimed embodiments of this invention relates to—electro-optic devices and methods of production, and more particularly to organic electro-optic devices.
  • Solar cell technology has been expected to be the most effective method for producing clean energy at low cost and minimum pollution.
  • solar cell technologies have evolved based on various material systems used for harvesting the solar energy.
  • the most traditional, yet the most commonly available kind of solar cell technology is based on the utilization of crystalline silicon as the active absorbing material.
  • the application of silicon-based solar cells as a major energy source is limited.
  • One of these applications is to achieve high-performance visually transparent or semi-transparent PV devices, which could open up PV applications in many untapped areas such as building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV).
  • BIPV building-integrated photovoltaics
  • OPVs polymer solar cells
  • TOPV organic solar cells that have an average transparency within the visible light region (400 nm ⁇ 650 nm) (T ave-vis ) of ⁇ 50%
  • s-TOPVs organic solar cells that have T ave-vis between 0% and 50%.
  • Transparent conductors such as thin metal films, metallic grids, metal nanowire networks, metal oxide, conducting polymers, and graphene, have been deposited onto OPV active layers as back electrodes to achieve a solution-processable TOPV or s-TOPV.
  • these demonstrations often result in low device performance. Therefore, there remains a need for improved organic electro-optic devices.
  • An electro-optic device includes a first electrode, an active layer formed over and electrically connected with the first electrode, a buffer layer formed over and electrically connected with the active layer, and a second electrode formed directly on the buffer layer.
  • the second electrode includes a plurality of nanowires interconnected into a network of nanowires.
  • the buffer layer provides a physical barrier between the active layer and the plurality of nanowires to prevent damage to the active layer while the second electrode is formed.
  • a method of producing an electro-optic device includes forming an active layer on a substructure, forming a buffer layer over and electrically connected with the active layer, and forming an electrode directly on the buffer layer.
  • the active layer includes a bulk heterojunction organic semiconductor.
  • the electrode includes a plurality of nanowires interconnected into a network of nanowires.
  • the buffer layer provides a physical barrier between the active layer and the plurality of nanowires to prevent damage to the active layer during the forming of the electrode.
  • FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of an electro-optic device according to an embodiment of the current invention.
  • FIG. 2 shows examples of some organic photovoltaic materials that can be used for visually semi-transparent or transparent organic photovoltaic devices according to some embodiments of the current invention.
  • FIG. 3 shows examples of some n-type organic photovoltaic materials that can be used for visually semi-transparent or transparent organic photovoltaic devices according to some embodiments of the current invention.
  • FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration of an electro-optic device according to an embodiment of the current invention.
  • FIG. 5 is a schematic illustration of electro-optic devices according to further embodiments of the current invention.
  • FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration of electro-optic devices according to further embodiments of the current invention.
  • FIG. 7 is a schematic illustration of electro-optic devices according to further embodiments of the current invention.
  • FIG. 8 shows an example including device performance data according to an embodiment of the current invention.
  • FIG. 9 shows an example including device performance data according to another embodiment of the current invention.
  • FIG. 10 shows an example including device performance data according to another embodiment of the current invention.
  • FIGS. 11A-11C show device architecture and materials for fully solution-processed transparent polymer solar cells according to an embodiment of the current invention.
  • A Schematic of the device architecture.
  • B Chemical structure of the donor (PBDTT-DPP) and acceptor (PCBM) materials used for the UV- and NIR-sensitive active layer.
  • C Absorption spectra of PBDTT-DPP and PCBM, and transmission spectrum of the PBDTT-DPP:PCBM BHJ active layer. The dashed lines indicate the visible wavelength range.
  • FIGS. 12A-12E show AgNW-based composite transparent conductor as the cathode for highly transparent polymer solar cells according to an embodiment of the current invention.
  • A, B SEM images of the top and bottom surfaces of the AgNW-based cathode.
  • C Transmission spectra of the pristine ITO nanoparticle film, the AgNW-based composite transparent conductor and the transparent solar cell.
  • D Photograph of a transparent polymer solar cell. The yellow and blue brackets indicate the top AgNW-based composite electrode and the bottom ITO electrode, respectively.
  • E Current density-voltage characterization of the transparent device (illuminated from ITO side or AgNW composite electrode side) and the control device (using reflective thermal-evaporated Al as cathode).
  • FIG. 13 shows external quantum efficiency (EQE) characterization of the transparent PSC according to an embodiment of the current invention.
  • the incident light beam illuminated from both ITO (A) and AgNW (B) electrode sides were investigated.
  • An Al-based reflective mirror was then placed at the back of the transparent device to reflect the transmitted photons back to the device (C and D) and the EQE spectra were also collected.
  • the calculated J sc values based on the EQE results are: (A) 8.99 mA ⁇ cm ⁇ 2 ; (B) 8.24 mA ⁇ cm ⁇ 2 ; (C) 12.83 mA ⁇ cm ⁇ 2 ; (D) 11.01 mA ⁇ cm ⁇ 2 .
  • FIG. 14 shows plots of the Shockley-Queisser maximum efficiency as a function of average transmittance in the visible.
  • optically transparent means that a sufficient amount of light within the wavelength range of operation can pass through for the particular application.
  • light is intended to have a broad meaning to include both visible and non-visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
  • infrared and ultraviolet light are intended to be included within the broad definition of the term “light”
  • nanowire is intended to include any electrically conducting structure that has cross dimensions less than about 200 nm and a longitudinal dimension that is at least ten times greater than the largest cross dimension. In some cases, the longitudinal dimension can be one hundred times greater than the largest cross dimension, one thousand times greater than the largest cross dimension, or even more.
  • nanoparticle is intended to include any shape that has all outer dimensions less than about 200 nm.
  • the term “network of nanowires” is intended to refer to an arrangement of a plurality of nanowires such that there are multiple overlapping junctions between different nanowires.
  • the nanowires within the network can be randomly or semi-randomly arranged, and can have a distribution of lengths, i.e., they do not have to be uniformly the same length.
  • the network can be thought of as being similar to a fabric, although not woven or tied together in a systematic manner.
  • the plurality of nanowires in the network provide multiple electrical pathways from one edge of the network to the other such that breaking a relatively small number of junctions will still leave alternative electrical paths from one edge of the network to the other.
  • the network of nanowires can thus be flexible as well as fault tolerant, somewhat analogous to a communications network, such as the internet.
  • solution is intended to have a broad meaning to include both components dissolved in a liquid as well as components suspended in a liquid.
  • nanoparticles and/or nanowires suspended in a liquid are considered to be within the definition of the term “solution” as used herein.
  • the following features can be included: 1) an effective optically transparent conductor for both the bottom conductive substrate and the top electrical contact; 2) organic photovoltaic absorbers (transparent or semi-transparent) sandwiched between the two electrodes; 3) transparent electrical buffer layers as efficient charge transferring media at the anode and/or cathode contact.
  • the electrode deposited onto the active layer as “top electrode” and the electrode on which the active layer is coated, as the bottom electrode.
  • TiO 2 or Indium-Tin-Oxide (ITO) nanoparticles can be combined with silver nanowire (AgNW) conductive networks to achieve an effective transparent conductive electrode.
  • AgNW silver nanowire
  • These electrodes have been used as transparent conductors in several photovoltaic devices. For example, we have used them as the bottom contacts for polymer solar cells. We also used them as the window layer in the CuInS x Se 2-x (CISS) and CuIn x Ga 1-x Se 2 (CIGS) solar cells.
  • the current invention we combined metal nanowire networks with metal oxide nanoparticles to form solution-processed AgNW-based composite transparent conductors. We then processed these transparent conductors onto the organic or polymeric photovoltaic active layers as the top electrodes under mild processing conditions (low thermal treatment temperature of ⁇ 160° C.). Finally, we achieved high-performance, transparent or semi-transparent organic photovoltaic devices.
  • Some embodiments of the current invention involve three parts: 1) a novel processing method of AgNW-based composites onto organic or polymeric photovoltaic active layers under mild conditions; 2) the design of TOPV, s-TOPV and related device structures, and 3) the interface engineering between the active layer and the electrodes. Ho wever, the broad concepts of the current invention are not limited to these particular examples.
  • FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of an electro-optic device 100 according to an embodiment of the current invention.
  • the electro-optic device 100 includes a first electrode 102 , an active layer 104 formed over and electrically connected with the first electrode 102 , a buffer layer 106 formed over and electrically connected with the active layer 104 , and a second electrode 108 formed directly on the buffer layer 106 .
  • the second electrode 108 comprises a plurality of nanowires interconnected into a network of nanowires and the buffer layer 106 provides a physical barrier between the active layer 104 and the plurality of nanowires to prevent damage to the active layer 104 while the second electrode 108 is formed.
  • the buffer layer 106 is at least 1 nm thick. In some embodiments, the buffer layer is at least 1 nm thick and less than 1000 nm thick. In some embodiments, the buffer layer at least 30 nm thick and less than 51 nm thick. In addition, the buffer layer 106 provides an electrical function in addition to the physical (mechanical) function.
  • both electrodes can be transparent.
  • more than two electrodes and/or more than one active layer can also be included.
  • the plurality of nanowires interconnected into the network of nanowires have electrically connected junctions at overlapping nanowire portions and define spaces void of the nanowires
  • the second electrode further includes a plurality of nanoparticles disposed to at least partially fill a plurality of the spaces to provide additional electrically conducting pathways for the network of nanowires across the spaces.
  • the plurality of nanoparticles can be electrically conducting nanoparticles, semiconducting nanoparticles, or combinations thereof.
  • the plurality of nanoparticles can be substantially optically transparent nanoparticles, and the network of nanowires and the plurality of nanoparticles form at least a portion of an optically transparent electrode of the electro-optic device.
  • the buffer layer 106 itself includes electrically conducting and optically transparent nanoparticles.
  • electro-optic device 100 can also include a polymer layer at least one of encapsulating the layer of nanowires and the plurality of nanoparticles or can be intermixed with at least one of the layer of nanowires and the plurality of nanoparticles to form a composite polymer-nanowire-nanoparticle layer.
  • the plurality of nanoparticles can include at least one of a metal oxide, a conducting polymer, graphene, or fluorine-doped tin oxide. In some embodiments, the plurality of nanoparticles can include at least one metal oxide selected from the group of metal oxides consisting of indium tin oxide, tin oxide, zinc oxide, aluminum zinc oxide, indium zinc oxide, vanadium oxide, and cerium oxide.
  • the plurality of nanowires include at least one of carbon nanotubes or metal nanowires.
  • the metal nanowires include at least one of silver, gold, copper, or aluminum.
  • the second electrode can include a plurality of nanowires interconnected into a network of nanowires.
  • the second electrode can be an optically transparent electrode.
  • the active layer can be a bulk heterojunction organic semiconductor.
  • the electro-optic device can be a photovoltaic device that has an average transparency of at least 10% across the visible range of wavelengths 400 nm to 650 nm. In some embodiments, the electro-optic device can be a photovoltaic device that has an average transparency of at least 30% across the visible range of wavelengths 400 nm to 650 nm. In some embodiments, the electro-optic device can be a photovoltaic device that has an average transparency of at least 50% across the visible range of wavelengths 400 nm to 650 nm.
  • the electro-optic device can be a photovoltaic device that has an average transparency of at least 70% across the visible range of wavelengths 400 nm to 650 nm. Some applications may benefit from high transparency, while others may only need, or even require, partial transparency.
  • the bulk heterojunction organic semiconductor can include a polymer that has a repeated unit having the structure of formula (I)
  • R 1 , R 2 and R 3 are independently selected from alkyl groups with up to 18 C atoms, aryls and substituted aryls;
  • X is selected from Oxygen, Sulfur, Selenium and Nitrogen atoms;
  • Ar 1 and Ar 2 are each, independently, one to five monocyclic arylene, bicyclic arylene, and polycyclic arylene, monocyclic heteroarylene, bicyclic heteroarylene and polycyclic heteroarylene groups, either fused or linked.
  • Ar 1 and Ar 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of
  • R is a proton, fluorine atom, CF 3 , CN, NO 2 , or alkyl group with carbon atom number of 1-18.
  • the repeated unit has the structure of formula (II).
  • R 1 and R 3 are independently selected from alkyl groups with up to 18 C atoms, aryls and substituted aryls.
  • R 1 and R 3 are independently selected from alkyl groups with 4 to 12 C atoms. In some embodiments, the R 1 is a 2-ethylhexyl group and R 3 is a 2-butyloctyl group.
  • the buffer layer can be a p-type semiconductor and the electro-optic device is a photovoltaic device with an inverted device structure. In some embodiments, the buffer layer can be an n-type semiconductor and the electro-optic device is a photovoltaic device with a regular device structure.
  • a method of producing an electro-optic device includes forming an active layer on a substructure, forming a buffer layer over and electrically connected with the active layer, and forming an electrode directly on the buffer layer.
  • the active layer includes a bulk heterojunction organic semiconductor.
  • the electrode includes a plurality of nanowires interconnected into a network of nanowires, and the buffer layer provides a physical barrier between the active layer and the plurality of nanowires to prevent damage to the active layer during the forming the electrode.
  • the forming the active layer, the buffer layer, and the electrode are all solution processes.
  • the forming the electrode can be performed at a temperature less than 160° C.
  • Some embodiments of the current invention can provide an efficient top contact onto a soft organic or polymer photovoltaic active layer. This can help to achieve visually transparent or semi-transparent OPV devices, top-illuminated OPV devices, or stacked OPV devices, for example.
  • the broad concepts of the current invention are not limited to these examples.
  • other applications could include, but are not limited to, photodiodes, light emitting diodes, etc.
  • the devices include organic photoactive materials or their blends as absorbers.
  • the organic absorbers can include polymer, oligomer, and small-molecule photovoltaic materials.
  • a visibly semi-transparent or transparent polymer absorber can be characterized by the optical bandgap.
  • any organic conjugated material films with an average transparency within the visible light region (400 nm ⁇ 650 nm) (T ave-vis ) of >0% can be the potential absorbers for semi-transparent organic solar cells. If the material has a T ave-vis of ⁇ 50%, it will be a good candidate for transparent organic solar cells. Examples of some polymeric photovoltaic materials are provided by, but not limited to, FIG. 2 .
  • These low bandgap polymers are capable of harvesting solar energy from 600 nm to 850 nm, at the same time, being highly transparent to the photons in visible region from 400 nm to 600 nm. This can be more suitable for transparent or semi-transparent organic photovoltaic devices. Also examples of some small molecules are provided by, but not limited to, those shown in FIG. 2 . These materials can be evaporated or solution-processed as the photovoltaic active layers. All of the examples of organic absorbers are p-typed (electron donating) materials. To make an organic solar cell, an n-typed (electron accepting) material is required to provide a PN junction. Some suitable acceptor materials are characterized by LUMO level and HOMO level matching up to that of the organic absorber. Examples are shown in, but not limited to, FIG. 3 .
  • organic materials and acceptor materials can be dissolved in an organic solvent, such as benzene, chlorobenzene, dichlorobenzene, chloroform, THF, toluene and etc, and coated on top of the bottom electrode.
  • organic materials and acceptor materials can be either dissolved in the same solution and coated together, or dissolved in separate solutions and coated sequentially.
  • the organic materials can also be processed by other coating methods other than solution processes. Examples include, but are not limited to, thermal evaporation, spray coating, slot-die coating, bar coating, screen printing, doctoral blade coating, etc.
  • Electrodes there can be two electrodes, one on each side of the organic active layers to collect electricity.
  • Example diagrams are provided in FIG. 4 .
  • electrical buffer layers can be applied between the electrodes and organic active layer.
  • the electrical buffer layers do not only improve the electrical contact between layers, but also act as a protecting film for sublayer protection.
  • Buffer Layer 2 can prevent damage to the organic active layer during the process of depositing the top electrode.
  • electrical buffer layers can be applied above organic materials, below organic materials, or both.
  • Suitable electrical buffer layer materials can include metal oxides (examples include, but are not limited to, ZnO, TiO 2 , MoO 3 , V 2 O 5 , NiO, WO 3 , etc.), aqueous polymers (examples include, but are not limited to, PEO, PEDOT:PSS, PANI, PANI:PSS, polypyrrole, conjugated polyelectrolyte, etc.) and salts (examples include, but are not limited to, CsF 2 , LiF, CsCO 3 , etc.)
  • the electrical buffer layer can applied prior to the electrode deposition and on top of organic material to prevent damaging the organic materials.
  • Methods of deposition of electrical buffer layers can include, but are not limited to, spin-coating, screen printing, spray coating, chemical vapor deposition, roll-to-roll printing, thermal evaporation, etc.
  • the thickness of electrical buffer layer can be within the range of 1 nm to 1000 nm thick.
  • the electrical buffer layer has sufficient electron (n-type) or hole transporting (p-type) ability, which can be represented in terms of high carrier mobility of electron or hole or both.
  • Examples mentioned above can be either n-type or p-type electrical buffer layers.
  • ZnO and TiO 2 can be suitable for n-type electrical buffer layers.
  • MoO 3 , V 2 O 5 , NiO, and WO 3 can be suitable for p-type electrical buffer layers.
  • Aqueous polymer such as PEDOT:PSS, PANI:PSS, and polypyrrole, can be suitable as p-type electrical buffer layers.
  • Conjugated polyelectrolytes can be suitable for n-type or p-type electrical buffer layers. The combination of these materials can also be considered for the electrical buffer layer.
  • either a p-type or n-type electrical buffer layer can be applied on the top of organic materials.
  • a p-type electrical buffer layer is applied on top of active layers, the device structure is known as an “inverted structure” of organic solar cell.
  • an n-type electrical buffer layer is applied on top of organic photovoltaic active layers, the structure is known as a “regular structure” of organic solar cell.
  • FIG. 5 provides schematic illustrations of a regular structure and an inverted structure.
  • a transparent conductor can deposited by solution methods to provide the top electrode.
  • solution methods can include, but are not limit to, spin-coating, screen printing, spray coating, chemical vapor deposition, and roll-to-roll printing, etc.
  • transparent conductors that can be used for solution methods can include conducting 1-dimension (1-D) nanostructured materials.
  • 1-D nanostructured materials can include, but are not limited to, silver nanowires, copper nanowires, gold nanowires, carbon nanotubes, etc.
  • transparent conductors can also include, but are not limited to, a conducting network based on conductive nanoparticles (gold, silver, copper, platinum, doped zinc oxide, doped tin oxide, indium-tin-oxide, graphene), or composites of conductive nanowires and conductive nanoparticles.
  • conductive nanoparticles gold, silver, copper, platinum, doped zinc oxide, doped tin oxide, indium-tin-oxide, graphene
  • composites of conductive nanowires and conductive nanoparticles can also include, but are not limited to, a conducting network based on conductive nanoparticles (gold, silver, copper, platinum, doped zinc oxide, doped tin oxide, indium-tin-oxide, graphene), or composites of conductive nanowires and conductive nanoparticles.
  • a suitable interface layer can be used as described above.
  • the space inside the conductive network can be filled with semi-conducting or conducting nanoparticles or polymers, for example. Examples include, but are not limited to, indium-tin-oxide nanoparticles (ITO-np), TiO 2 , ZnO, V 2 O 5 , SnO 2 , PEDOT:PSS, PANI, etc.
  • ITO-np indium-tin-oxide nanoparticles
  • thermal or UV light-cured epoxy can be combined with the nanoparticle. These can form composite electrodes with AgNW networks in one particular embodiment.
  • the polymeric materials, such as epoxy can also be coated onto the AgNW composite film as an encapsulation film to improve the device stability.
  • FIG. 6 provides schematic illustrations of structures of top-illuminated OPV devices according to some embodiments of the current invention. Nano-scale or micro-scale surface textures can also be incorporated onto the bottom electrode to improve the light absorption by increasing scattering.
  • transparent or semi-transparent organic solar cells can be incorporated or stacked with other solar cells to obtain higher performance than the single solar cell alone.
  • An example of a stacking structure is shown in FIG. 7 .
  • One or more visually semi-transparent or transparent OPV devices can be stacked onto other PV devices in series or parallel connections. These other PV devices can be either organic or inorganic solar cells. Examples include, but not limited to, silicon-based solar cells, CIGS or CZTS solar cells, and quantum dot solar cells.
  • the active materials in each stacked layer can be different with different absorption characteristics. They can also be the same materials. Using the same materials can be useful to keep each layer thinner than a desired maximum, to improve charge collection, for example.
  • OPV devices can be integrated into buildings, portable electronics, etc. Examples can include, but are not limited to, building roof tops or windows, car windows, liquid crystal displays, light-emitting diodes, electrochromic devices, etc.
  • the integrated devices can be used to harvest ambient light, sunlight energy or the backlight of a liquid crystal display, for example.
  • a PBDTTT-DPP+PC 60 BM blended film is utilized as the active layer for a visually transparent or semi-transparent OPV device with regular device structure (i.e., as opposed to inverted structure).
  • regular device structure i.e., as opposed to inverted structure.
  • Different interface electrical buffer layers are used. Table 1 provides a summary of the results.
  • Low bandgap polymer PBDTT-DPP ( FIG. 2 ) and PC 60 BM ( FIG. 3 ) is blended in dichlorobenzene solution and spin coated onto ITO glass which has been pre-coated with PEDOT:PSS as anode electrical buffer layer.
  • TiO 2 sol gel solution is deposited on top of the organic layer to form a 30 ⁇ 50 nm thick protective layer before cathode layer formation.
  • Silver nanowire is spray-coated or spin-coated from its isopropanol solution on top of TiO 2 layer to form the transparent conductor.
  • Metallic nanoparticles (example is indium tin oxide (ITO)) solution (containing some polymer materials as binders.
  • polymers examples include, but are not limited to, polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), etc.) is spin coated on top of silver nanowire matrix to form a composite transparent conductor.
  • the sheet resistance of the composite transparent conductor is as low as ⁇ 30 ohm/sq with a transmittance of ⁇ 90% at 550 nm.
  • the average transparency of the whole device within 400 ⁇ 650 nm is ⁇ 70%.
  • the power conversion efficiency of the transparent solar cell is 3.95%.
  • FIG. 8 shows the device structure and the device performance.
  • TiO 2 sol-gel interface layer is replaced by ZnO sol-gel solution.
  • the average transparency of the whole device within 400 ⁇ 650 nm is ⁇ 70%.
  • the power conversion efficiency of the transparent solar cell is 4.08%.
  • ZnO is coated onto ITO glass substrate as n-type electrical buffer.
  • Low bandgap polymer PBDTT-DPP and PC 60 BM is blended in dichlorobenzene solution and spin coated onto the ZnO layer.
  • MoO 3 is deposited on top of the organic layer by vacuum thermal deposition to form a 15 nm thick protective layer.
  • the AgNW composite electrodes are then deposited onto the MoO 3 layer to finish the device.
  • the average transparency of the whole device within 400 ⁇ 650 nm is ⁇ 60%.
  • the power conversion efficiency of this transparent solar cell is 3.3% when the light is illuminated from the ITO substrate side.
  • the MoO 3 layer is replaced by a V 2 O 5 layer.
  • the average transparency of the whole device within 400 ⁇ 650 nm is ⁇ 60%.
  • the power conversion efficiency of transparent solar cell is 3.5% when the light is illuminated from the ITO substrate side.
  • Tandem Structure 1 Low bandgap polymer PBDTT-DPP and PC 60 BM is blended in dichlorobenzene solution and spin coated onto ITO glass which has been pre-coated with PEDOT:PSS as anode electrical buffer layer.
  • TiO 2 sol gel solution is deposited on top of organic layer to form a 10 nm-30 nm thick protective layer.
  • Metallic nanoparticle of indium tin oxide is spin coated on top of TiO 2 to form a transparent inter-connecting layer.
  • PEDOT:PSS as anode electrical buffer layer for the second junction of organic transparent solar cell is spin coated on top of indium tin oxide layer and baked inside N 2 environment.
  • the same low bandgap polymer PBDTT-DPP and PC 60 BM is blended in dichlorobenzene solution and spin coated on top of PEDOT:PSS following ZnO deposition from sol-gel.
  • Silver nanowire is spray coated or spincoated from isopropanol solution on top of ZnO layer to form the transparent conductor.
  • ITO nanoparticle (ITO NP)+polymer binder is then spin-coated on top of silver nanowire matrix to form a composite transparent conductor.
  • the average transparency of the whole device within 400 ⁇ 650 nm is ⁇ 50%.
  • the power conversion efficiency of this transparent solar cell is 5.04% when the light is illuminated from the ITO substrate side.
  • PSCs Polymer solar cells
  • PCE power-conversion efficiency
  • PV photovoltaic
  • PSCs are also intensely investigated for their potential in making unique advances in much broader applications (3-5).
  • One of these applications is to achieve high-performance transparent PV devices, which will open up PV applications in many untapped areas such as building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) (6) or integrated PV-chargers for portable electronics (7).
  • BIPV building-integrated photovoltaics
  • BIPV building-integrated photovoltaics
  • an ideal active layer material for transparent PSCs needs to harvest most of the photons from ultraviolet (UV) and near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths in the solar spectrum, while the photons in the visible range should be transmitted.
  • UV ultraviolet
  • NIR near-infrared
  • PCE high power-conversion-efficiency
  • P3HT poly(3-hexylthiophene)
  • P3HT is the most commonly-used active layer material in semi-transparent PSCs (11).
  • P3HT due to efficient photon harvesting in the visible, P3HT (and many other) devices often have low transparency.
  • the transparent conductor is also a key factor that affects the performance of transparent PSCs.
  • An ideal transparent conductor for transparent PSCs must simultaneously pursue high transparency and low resistance together with ease of processing.
  • a similar tradeoff also applies to these electrode materials, as high conductivity often sacrifices transparency (18).
  • thermally evaporated thin metallic films are commonly used as semi-transparent electrodes for PSCs, but the conductivity is significantly compromised by film transparency (9).
  • the vacuum-based deposition process also limits its wide application for mass production.
  • Some recently developed solution-processable transparent conductors, such as carbon nanotubes (19, 20), graphene (21, 22), and silver nanowires (AgNWs) (23-26) have opened up a new era for transparent conductors.
  • FIG. 11A shows the schematic structure of a transparent PSC according to an embodiment of the current invention.
  • An UV and NIR light-sensitive photoactive layer is sandwiched between two transparent electrodes.
  • the photoactive layer is a bulk hetero-junction (BHJ) blend consisting of a NIR light-sensitive PV polymer poly(2,6′-4,8-di(5-ethylhexylthienyl)benzo[1,2-b;3,4-b]dithiophene-alt-5-dibutyloctyl-3,6-bis(5-bromothiophen-2-yl)pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione) (PBDTT-DPP, FIG.
  • BHJ bulk hetero-junction
  • FIG. 11C shows the film absorption of PBDTT-DPP, PCBM, and their blend.
  • PBDTT-DPP is a low band-gap polymer with strong photosensitivity in the range 650-850 nm, while the absorption of PCBM is located below 400 nm.
  • the PBDTT-DPP:PCBM active layer has a maximum transmission of 82% at ⁇ 550 nm and an average transmission of 76% over the entire visible range (400 to 650 nm), but is strongly absorbing in the NIR range (from 650 to 850 nm), as shown in FIG. 11C . This spectral coverage ensures the harvesting of UV and NIR photons while visible photons are transmitted, making for an excellent candidate for transparent PSCs.
  • both the bottom (anode) and top (cathode) electrodes need high transparency to ensure the transmission of visible light.
  • ITO indium-tin-oxide
  • PET poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate)
  • PDOT poly(styrene sulfonate)
  • the AgNW can be spray-coated onto the active layer through alcohol-based solvents, which are compatible with many PSC materials.
  • the AgNW network is then fused using a TiO 2 sol-gel solution to enhance the connection between AgNWs and the adhesion of AgNWs to the active layers ( 26 ). This step is performed with mild processing conditions, and has good compatibility with the active layer. Due to the percolation feature of the AgNW conducting network ( 28 ), the empty space between AgNWs is filled with transparent conductive fillers.
  • This conductive filler will extract the charges generated from areas that are not covered by AgNWs and transport these charges to the AgNW matrix.
  • ITO indium-tin-oxide
  • This ITO-based filling material consists of thermally curable materials that can improve the adhesion of AgNW networks onto the active layer and form a continuous film with good contact with the underlying active layer.
  • FIG. 12A shows the scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image of the top surface of the AgNW-based composite electrode. It is clear that the AgNW networks are completely buried in the ITO nanoparticle-based conductive filling material, resulting in the smooth top surface.
  • FIG. 12B shows the SEM image of the bottom surface of the composite transparent conductor. AgNWs on the bottom surface are still exposed to the active layer, which indicates that ITO nanoparticles did not diffuse into the contact area between AgNWs and the active layer, but only filled the extra space between AgNWs.
  • FIG. 12C shows the transmittance spectra of the ITO nanoparticle film and the AgNW-based composite film.
  • the ITO nanoparticle film (thickness ⁇ 400 nm) has good transparency within the visible and NIR range, with a sheet resistance of ⁇ 100 k ⁇ /sq.
  • the pristine AgNWs film prepared from spray-coating methods has a resistance of >1 M ⁇ /sq.
  • the result AgNW composite film possesses an average transmittance of ⁇ 87% from 400 to 1000 nm with a sheet resistance of ⁇ 30 ⁇ /sq.
  • a suitable interface modification layer is also critical.
  • the interlayer can not only act as a protective film on the soft active layer, but can also improve the electrical contact between the active layer and top electrode.
  • the TiO 2 nanoparticle layer serves as an efficient electron-transporting layer and allows electrons to tunnel through the barrier into the AgNW-based electrode.
  • FIG. 12C shows a photograph of a highly transparent PSC where the building behind can be clearly seen through the device.
  • the yellow and blue brackets indicate the edge of the top AgNW-based composite electrode and the bottom ITO electrode, respectively.
  • FIG. 12E demonstrates the current density-voltage (J-V) curves of the transparent PSC measured under simulated AM 1.5 G illumination with an intensity of 1000 W ⁇ m ⁇ 2 .
  • the performance of the control device is also shown in FIG. 12E , which uses evaporated Al as a reflective electrode.
  • a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 5.82% was obtained with a short-circuit current density (J sc ) of 12.55 mA ⁇ cm ⁇ 2 , an open-circuit voltage (V oc ) of 0.78 V, and fill factor (FF) of 59.5%.
  • PCE power conversion efficiency
  • J sc short-circuit current density
  • V oc open-circuit voltage
  • FF fill factor
  • V oc 0.76 V
  • J sc 8.7 mA ⁇ cm ⁇ 2
  • FF 57.8%
  • PCE 3.82%
  • Both measurements show similar open-circuit voltages (V oc ) and fill factors (FF).
  • J sc short-circuit current density
  • FIG. 13 shows the external quantum efficiency (EQE) characterization of the transparent PSCs. J sc can be calculated by integrating the EQE results with the solar spectrum.
  • the J sc obtained by EQE illumination from the ITO and AgNW sides are 8.99 and 8.32 mA ⁇ cm ⁇ 2 , respectively. These values are roughly consistent with the results obtained from the J-V characterization. If a reflective mirror were placed at the back of the transparent PSC to reflect the transmitted photons back to the device, as illustrated in C and D of FIG. 13 , the calculated J sc are 12.83 and 11.01 mA ⁇ cm ⁇ 2 . These results show that the photons transmitted through the transparent PSCs can be utilized for energy generation or other optical applications, indicating the broad applications of transparent PSCs.
  • the evaluation of a transparent solar cell needs to consider not only the PCE value, but also take into account the overall transparency in the visible.
  • PI transparent solar cell Performance Index
  • the PI is a relative value from 0-100 that compares the transparency and the PCE of an actual device with the corresponding values of the ideal case.
  • the PI is expressed as:
  • T ideal and PCE ideal are the values for an ideal transparent solar cell.
  • T ideal and PCE ideal are the values for an ideal transparent solar cell.
  • the photons within visible light region ⁇ 400-650 nm
  • PCE ideal 20.8% using Shockley-Queisser theory (32).
  • the near-infrared (NIR) light-sensitive active polymer is poly[2,6′-4,8-di(5-ethylhexylthienyl)benzo[1,2-b;3,4-b]dithiophene-alt-5-dibutyloctyl-3,6-bis(5-bromothiophen-2-yl)pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione] (PBDTT-DPP), which was developed in our laboratory (S1).
  • [6,6]-phenyl C 61 -butyric acid methyl ester was purchased from Nano-C (Westwood, Mass., USA).
  • Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/poly(styrenesulfonate) was purchased from H. C. Starck (Newton, Mass., USA).
  • TiO 2 nanoparticle solution was prepared according previous report (S2).
  • Silver nanowires (AgNW) were purchased from BlueNano Inc. (Charlotte, N.C., USA) or Kechuang Advanced Materials Co., Ltd (Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China).
  • Indium-tin-oxide nanoparticle dispersion was purchased from Aldrich (Milwaukee, Wis., USA) or obtained as a gift from Evonik Degussa Corporation (Piscataway, N.J., USA).
  • the device structures are: (a) transparent polymer solar cells: ITO/PEDOT:PSS/PBDTT-DPP:PCBM/TiO 2 /AgNW composite electrode; (b) control device: ITO/PEDOT:PSS/PBDTT-DPP:PCBM/TiO 2 /Al.
  • Transparent polymer solar cells (a) were fabricated on patterned indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass substrates with a sheet resistance of 15 ⁇ /square.
  • the PEDOT:PSS layer was spin-casted at 4000 rpm for 60 s and annealed at 120° C. for 15 min in air.
  • the PBDTT-DPP:PCBM blend with a weight ratio of 1:2 in dichlorobenzene solution was spin-casted at 2500 rpm for 80 s on top of the PEDOT:PSS layer to form ⁇ 100 nm thick active layer.
  • a thin layer of TiO 2 solution was then spin-coated onto the active layer at 2500 rpm for 30 s and annealed at 100° C. for 1 min to form the n-type interface layer.
  • the silver nanowire dispersion in isopropyl alcohol (IPA) was spin-coated (2 mg/mL dispersion, 2500 rpm, 10 drops) or spray-coated (0.05 mg/mL dispersion) onto the TiO 2 layer to form the silver nanowire conducting networks.
  • IPA isopropyl alcohol
  • S3 The fusing process of the silver nanowire network was then carried out by applying diluted TiO 2 sol-gel solution in ethanol at 3000 rpm and baking for 100° C. for 30 s.
  • ITO nanoparticle dispersion (10 wt. %) was used as transparent conductive filler, which was spin-coated onto the fused AgNW matrix to form the composite electrode. Mild heating at 80° C.
  • the thickness of the transparent composite electrode is around 400 nm.
  • the device electrode fingers were formed by cutting the films with a blade and blowing the devices with N 2 to avoid possible short-circuits between AgNWs and the bottom ITO substrate.
  • the active area is 10 mm 2 , which is defined by the overlap between bottom ITO substrate and the top fingers.
  • control device (b) with an evaporated reflective Al electrode the devices were completed by thermal evaporation of 100 nm Al as the cathode under vacuum at a base pressure of 2 ⁇ 10 ⁇ 6 Torr after the deposition of polymer active layer.
  • the transmission spectra were recorded using a Hitachi ultraviolet-visible U-4100 spectrophotometer (Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation, Tokyo, Japan). Current density-voltage characteristics of photovoltaic cells were measured using a Keithley 2400 source unit (Keithley Instruments, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, USA) under a simulated AM1.5 G spectrum with an Oriel 91191 solar simulator (Newport Corporation, Irvine, Calif., USA). The light intensity was ⁇ 100 mW ⁇ cm ⁇ 2 , as calibrated using a Si photodiode.
  • the surface resistance ( ⁇ 100 ⁇ /sq) was measured using the four-point probe method with a surface resistivity meter (Guardian Manufacturing, Cocoa, Fla., USA, Model: SRM-232-100, range: 0 ⁇ 100 S2/sq).
  • Incident photon-to-current conversion efficiency (IPCE) or external quantum efficiency (EQE) was measured on a custom-made IPCE system.
  • the scanning electron microscopy images were taken using FEI Nova NanoSEM 650 (FEI Corporation, Hillsboro, Oreg., USA).

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