US2455679A - Distillation of acid-treated oils - Google Patents
Distillation of acid-treated oils Download PDFInfo
- Publication number
- US2455679A US2455679A US700984A US70098446A US2455679A US 2455679 A US2455679 A US 2455679A US 700984 A US700984 A US 700984A US 70098446 A US70098446 A US 70098446A US 2455679 A US2455679 A US 2455679A
- Authority
- US
- United States
- Prior art keywords
- acid
- distillation
- treated
- oil
- sodium
- Prior art date
- Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.)
- Expired - Lifetime
Links
- 239000002253 acid Substances 0.000 title description 22
- 239000003921 oil Substances 0.000 title description 12
- 238000004821 distillation Methods 0.000 title description 10
- HEMHJVSKTPXQMS-UHFFFAOYSA-M Sodium hydroxide Chemical compound [OH-].[Na+] HEMHJVSKTPXQMS-UHFFFAOYSA-M 0.000 description 39
- 235000011121 sodium hydroxide Nutrition 0.000 description 13
- RAHZWNYVWXNFOC-UHFFFAOYSA-N Sulphur dioxide Chemical compound O=S=O RAHZWNYVWXNFOC-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 10
- 238000000034 method Methods 0.000 description 8
- 230000015572 biosynthetic process Effects 0.000 description 7
- 238000006386 neutralization reaction Methods 0.000 description 7
- KQSJSRIUULBTSE-UHFFFAOYSA-M sodium;3-(3-ethylcyclopentyl)propanoate Chemical compound [Na+].CCC1CCC(CCC([O-])=O)C1 KQSJSRIUULBTSE-UHFFFAOYSA-M 0.000 description 6
- 150000002148 esters Chemical class 0.000 description 5
- 230000008569 process Effects 0.000 description 5
- 239000003513 alkali Substances 0.000 description 4
- 239000003518 caustics Substances 0.000 description 4
- 238000006243 chemical reaction Methods 0.000 description 4
- 239000013049 sediment Substances 0.000 description 4
- 239000000344 soap Substances 0.000 description 4
- 238000000354 decomposition reaction Methods 0.000 description 3
- 239000002480 mineral oil Substances 0.000 description 3
- 229940042472 mineral oil Drugs 0.000 description 3
- 235000010446 mineral oil Nutrition 0.000 description 3
- 230000009467 reduction Effects 0.000 description 3
- HNNQYHFROJDYHQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N 3-(4-ethylcyclohexyl)propanoic acid 3-(3-ethylcyclopentyl)propanoic acid Chemical compound CCC1CCC(CCC(O)=O)C1.CCC1CCC(CCC(O)=O)CC1 HNNQYHFROJDYHQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 2
- QGZKDVFQNNGYKY-UHFFFAOYSA-O Ammonium Chemical compound [NH4+] QGZKDVFQNNGYKY-UHFFFAOYSA-O 0.000 description 2
- DGAQECJNVWCQMB-PUAWFVPOSA-M Ilexoside XXIX Chemical compound C[C@@H]1CC[C@@]2(CC[C@@]3(C(=CC[C@H]4[C@]3(CC[C@@H]5[C@@]4(CC[C@@H](C5(C)C)OS(=O)(=O)[O-])C)C)[C@@H]2[C@]1(C)O)C)C(=O)O[C@H]6[C@@H]([C@H]([C@@H]([C@H](O6)CO)O)O)O.[Na+] DGAQECJNVWCQMB-PUAWFVPOSA-M 0.000 description 2
- 150000007513 acids Chemical class 0.000 description 2
- 230000000694 effects Effects 0.000 description 2
- 230000007246 mechanism Effects 0.000 description 2
- 239000011734 sodium Substances 0.000 description 2
- 229910052708 sodium Inorganic materials 0.000 description 2
- 239000000126 substance Substances 0.000 description 2
- DBGIVFWFUFKIQN-UHFFFAOYSA-N (+-)-Fenfluramine Chemical compound CCNC(C)CC1=CC=CC(C(F)(F)F)=C1 DBGIVFWFUFKIQN-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- VCIZOUSZFQGUKB-UHFFFAOYSA-N CCO.CCO.CCO.CCO.N Chemical compound CCO.CCO.CCO.CCO.N VCIZOUSZFQGUKB-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- OKTJSMMVPCPJKN-UHFFFAOYSA-N Carbon Chemical compound [C] OKTJSMMVPCPJKN-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- 235000013162 Cocos nucifera Nutrition 0.000 description 1
- 244000060011 Cocos nucifera Species 0.000 description 1
- 101100536354 Drosophila melanogaster tant gene Proteins 0.000 description 1
- 241000196324 Embryophyta Species 0.000 description 1
- 241000950314 Figura Species 0.000 description 1
- CDBYLPFSWZWCQE-UHFFFAOYSA-L Sodium Carbonate Chemical compound [Na+].[Na+].[O-]C([O-])=O CDBYLPFSWZWCQE-UHFFFAOYSA-L 0.000 description 1
- PMZURENOXWZQFD-UHFFFAOYSA-L Sodium Sulfate Chemical compound [Na+].[Na+].[O-]S([O-])(=O)=O PMZURENOXWZQFD-UHFFFAOYSA-L 0.000 description 1
- NINIDFKCEFEMDL-UHFFFAOYSA-N Sulfur Chemical compound [S] NINIDFKCEFEMDL-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYSA-N Sulfuric acid Chemical class OS(O)(=O)=O QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- 230000009471 action Effects 0.000 description 1
- 150000001412 amines Chemical class 0.000 description 1
- 230000008901 benefit Effects 0.000 description 1
- 229910052799 carbon Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 230000015556 catabolic process Effects 0.000 description 1
- 230000003197 catalytic effect Effects 0.000 description 1
- 230000008859 change Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000004140 cleaning Methods 0.000 description 1
- 150000001875 compounds Chemical class 0.000 description 1
- 230000008021 deposition Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000002474 experimental method Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000002349 favourable effect Effects 0.000 description 1
- 239000011521 glass Substances 0.000 description 1
- 238000010438 heat treatment Methods 0.000 description 1
- XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-M hydroxide Chemical compound [OH-] XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-M 0.000 description 1
- 230000006872 improvement Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000004519 manufacturing process Methods 0.000 description 1
- 229910052751 metal Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 239000002184 metal Substances 0.000 description 1
- 239000000203 mixture Substances 0.000 description 1
- 125000005609 naphthenate group Chemical group 0.000 description 1
- 125000005608 naphthenic acid group Chemical group 0.000 description 1
- 230000003472 neutralizing effect Effects 0.000 description 1
- 239000003209 petroleum derivative Substances 0.000 description 1
- 229920000642 polymer Polymers 0.000 description 1
- 230000001737 promoting effect Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000004445 quantitative analysis Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000009257 reactivity Effects 0.000 description 1
- 230000004044 response Effects 0.000 description 1
- 229910052938 sodium sulfate Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 235000011152 sodium sulphate Nutrition 0.000 description 1
- 239000011593 sulfur Substances 0.000 description 1
- 229910052717 sulfur Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 230000000007 visual effect Effects 0.000 description 1
Images
Classifications
-
- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
- C10G—CRACKING HYDROCARBON OILS; PRODUCTION OF LIQUID HYDROCARBON MIXTURES, e.g. BY DESTRUCTIVE HYDROGENATION, OLIGOMERISATION, POLYMERISATION; RECOVERY OF HYDROCARBON OILS FROM OIL-SHALE, OIL-SAND, OR GASES; REFINING MIXTURES MAINLY CONSISTING OF HYDROCARBONS; REFORMING OF NAPHTHA; MINERAL WAXES
- C10G19/00—Refining hydrocarbon oils in the absence of hydrogen, by alkaline treatment
-
- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
- C10G—CRACKING HYDROCARBON OILS; PRODUCTION OF LIQUID HYDROCARBON MIXTURES, e.g. BY DESTRUCTIVE HYDROGENATION, OLIGOMERISATION, POLYMERISATION; RECOVERY OF HYDROCARBON OILS FROM OIL-SHALE, OIL-SAND, OR GASES; REFINING MIXTURES MAINLY CONSISTING OF HYDROCARBONS; REFORMING OF NAPHTHA; MINERAL WAXES
- C10G7/00—Distillation of hydrocarbon oils
- C10G7/10—Inhibiting corrosion during distillation
Definitions
- This invention relates to a process of idistilling. acida't'realted oilsiandlW-ill .be fmllyunderstood from develop certain undesirale. cl'iaracteristicsdue ⁇ to. decomposition of compounds containing the acid radical. Since thegreatest advantagesof the. present process are obtained ⁇ whenitis-applied' to the redistillation ⁇ offacid treatednaph- This. and. other-f objects of ⁇ ⁇ this .invention ane,.-
- The. acidtreatedoiltfrorn. tank. ⁇ l. and the. caus- ⁇ tia. containing. the. ⁇ promoter. from. tank 2 are passedby. meansof pumps-.Landathroughimeters. 5. andi Gandlinal. intmthere-run battery. ⁇ About, 05.%. of...a..heavytoil" mayhaadded if; desired.. Ther.re nun...hattery,. in. case. of.. redistilling; nanhf tha.. .mayV consist. et. tower .8 which. is ⁇ heated.'oy. ⁇ meansoftaclosed steamcoil..9. at the; ⁇ bottom.. thereof.; The tower.. is.
- the sulfuric acid esters in the acid treated distillate react to the extent possible with the promoter, say oil soluble sodium naphthenate, releasing oil soluble naphthenic acids. These acids resaponify with the sodium hydroxide present and the reaction is repeated, until all the esters have reacted with (lower cost) sodium hydroxide through the route of the oil soluble promoter. ⁇ Carbon deposition is thus avoided andsuliur dioxide evolution does not take place.
- the promoter say oil soluble sodium naphthenate
Landscapes
- Chemical & Material Sciences (AREA)
- Oil, Petroleum & Natural Gas (AREA)
- Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
- Chemical Kinetics & Catalysis (AREA)
- General Chemical & Material Sciences (AREA)
- Organic Chemistry (AREA)
- Fats And Perfumes (AREA)
- Production Of Liquid Hydrocarbon Mixture For Refining Petroleum (AREA)
Description
Dec. 7, 1948. M. c. KQJONES ETAL DISTILLATION 0F ACID-TREATED OILS Filed Oct. 3, 1946 K-J rzes dw'ard C. Eulhar'a't nvenbcrs Patented Dec. 7, 1948 UNITED sTAtEs Para;
DISmlrEI-ATION; F AQIDLTREFEBGWSH i Minor. K..-Jones,Mountainsl`dc, iandiEdwatd. (L.
Eixllardt; Uiiion,` NL" J., assignors,toastandard.. OVDevelopment.`Company a corporation of" Delaware"-A .eppiicauoni acabar. 3, *1946s serial No.; mossa; l claims (o1. raies-ss).
This invention relates to a process of idistilling. acida't'realted oilsiandlW-ill .be fmllyunderstood from develop certain undesirale. cl'iaracteristicsdue` to. decomposition of compounds containing the acid radical. Since thegreatest advantagesof the. present process are obtained `whenitis-applied' to the redistillation` offacid treatednaph- This. and. other-f objects of` `this .invention ane,.-
accomplishedaby adding: .lesa `tham the .f theoreticai quantity ot talka-ligpreferably :9 0f95.%-,. necessary for. .neutralization of. thea estersfpresent .and'comev nletingtt-he i neutralization bythe i addition of4 suie` fcient. l. amount. Lotta? reactivity promoting mate.-v rial. capable: ofY neutralizing ther .residual acido. Suitable` promoters..` incltldel.-` naphthenicJ acid; soanst. .suchstast sodium f naphthenate. amines,n alkali phenates-,.-.tetrafalkyl ammonium` hydroifr-f-` idee, tetra-alkynol ammonium :hydroxides-,asuch as, tetra1 ethanol ammonium. `hy.droxide and. oil..
thas, and especially of acid treated cracked naphthas, the same" will be `described inmoredetail in conjunctionu with its last'fmentionedapplication.
Redistillation of a cracked naphtha which` has been treated with sulfuric aci'df islrthe `usual method employedfior` improving the .color and' lowering the'gum andl sulfur contenttofs thelstock,
these changes heine"l eii'ectedfthrough remonaly off polymers. Inl `the course:.oiiltiiis` disti'l1`ation;,su1` iur dioxide is. often` evolved Lthroughithe thermal breakdown .otlsulfurinr'acidi esters` present; `in` the acid treated?.charge:A This' gasipa'sses `out of' the still.` in. company Witlr the overhead products,` 1resultioig.'A in serious corrosionA of both overhead equipment.- and vfunnace tubesia-ndl Iheaters. De-
posits inr the tubes intthetreboiier section from. this decomposition:of.` sulfuric. acid: esters reducelieat transfer coeiiicient-si causing rapid rise in the tube metal temperatures and forcing shutdowns for cleaning after runs of short duration.
The addition offCaustioj. soda with solutizers or 1 without: causing corrosiomandoinfoulingzot tsaid i equipment.
soluble soaps, -such ast-.cornoiltsoanIn cocoanut oila soapnotton `seed:.oil,soap..etc. lltfis also .advane tageousftouse. a .smalltamounttot a` hearty oil. suchwas` :iM-clean `fueltoil:alongswith. .the` causticr and:` promoter to; act.. .as a.-v.ehicle s to. .car-ry. along. ann-sediment formation. through' the heater. secr tion. oftthastill..
Referring now tok the` 'figura the.appanat11s-.wil1. be briefly, `described.` in.. conjunction the. methodtof. operatingsthesame.
The. acidtreatedoiltfrorn. tank.` l. and the. caus-` tia. containing. the.` promoter. from. tank 2 are passedby. meansof pumps-.Landathroughimeters. 5. andi Gandlinal. intmthere-run battery.` About, 05.%. of...a..heavytoil" mayhaadded if; desired.. Ther.re nun...hattery,. in. case. of.. redistilling; nanhf tha.. .mayV consist. et. tower .8 which. is` heated.'oy.` meansoftaclosed steamcoil..9. at the;` bottom.. thereof.; The tower.. is. l.prortidad; with. `the usual. bell cap plates. All of the unvaporized.residuaist` removed-through .line1 .Ll ,intoresidue tant:` `l-2. Overhead... distillate. which.. leaves the; tower4 through line l.....is..condensedin condenser: UL whicnis connectediwith atsource. oLi/.acumrrby line` I5. The...condensei1. distillate, is.. passedl thnough. line t6 .b. f. pumpglfli to` the distillate` tank` [8o. The.. line`` i9 serves ior f the return vof redux. condensatef to .the tower..
" `Below i are.. tabulatedwthreez lruns. showing.; the` effect. oi` usingzmorefthan..theoretical caustic` re` quirements inthe. frst-.case,..and..the stoichio. met-ric.. amount .with a .cox-itactpromoter. inthe. second; .and the... above., recommended procedure of :..adding,- of. .the stoichiometric amount..` ot causticsodaplus Contact promoter inthe` form` ci sodium naphtl'ienates. .from caustic@ washing, naplzitnenic` acids. from. a.. suitable heating oil',
. fractionin, the thirdcasadn testina acid treated.
catalytic naphtha in a laboratory type, heater fouling test. and...id1sti11ation..equipment; Such labora-twig;` eguipment. reprcuiilces.A the` response.
of full scale plant equipment to similar conditions.
what is claimed as new and useful and is desired to be secured by Letters Patent is:
l Exactly to neutralize the estcr content found by quantitative analysis.
The rst run, in which an excess amount of caustic soda only was added, shows a rather high sediment formation in the heater fouling test and only a 63% reduction in sulfur dioxide formation in the distillation test. In the second case Where exactly the theoretical quantity of caustic plus the contact promoter was used, the effect of the solutizer was seen in the greater reduction of sulfur dioxide formation. However, sediment formation he-re was much higher than with caustic soda alone, but some advantage was gained inthat the deposit Wa'svsoft and muddy in appearance and in production furnace and heat exchanger tubes does not build up to a great extent. The third run, where caustic soda and sodium naphthenate were added in the amounts found to be critical, produced the best results. Here sediment formation was less than half than where caustic soda alone was used and 'sulfur dioxide reduction was excellent,
In experimental distillation's made in glass ap paratus, the change in color and appearance of the acid-treated gasoline was evident by visual observation. Acid treated gasolines of appreciable ester content, from `saylO to 50 ester number (milligrams of N/ l acidity formed per 100 ml.), were distilled with and without the addition of sodium hydroxide solution for neutralization and tetraethanol ammonium'hydroxide as a contact or reaction promoter, in the manner described. When thev acid-treated gasolines were distilled, they gradually darkened to a black color (due to decomposition of the esters), with evolution of sulfur dioxide in the overhead. However, when the neutralization and reaction promoter formula and technique was applied, the gasoline in the distillation ilask remained olea-r and of its original color, and only traces of sulfur dioxide were noted. These experiments demonstrated the improvement in deposit formation which is possible in distilling acid-treated petroleum distillates.
By way of illustrative explanation of the mechanism by which the favorable results are attained, it may be postulated that the sulfuric acid esters in the acid treated distillate react to the extent possible with the promoter, say oil soluble sodium naphthenate, releasing oil soluble naphthenic acids. These acids resaponify with the sodium hydroxide present and the reaction is repeated, until all the esters have reacted with (lower cost) sodium hydroxide through the route of the oil soluble promoter. `Carbon deposition is thus avoided andsuliur dioxide evolution does not take place. At the same time, the cementlike action of a mixture of sodium hydroxide, sodium sulfate `and .carbon is avoided, so that hard deposits do not build up in heat exchanger and furnace tubes. However, it is not intended to be bound by any theory of the mechanism of the reaction.
The nature and objects of the present invention having been thus described and illustrated,
1. The process of distilling an acid-treated mineral oil which comprises adding 90-95% of the stoichiometric quantity of caustic alkali necesnecessaryvto neutralize any acid reacting substance evolved from any residue of the treating acid during the distillation of the oil, said caustic alkali solution containing a suiiicient amount of a naphthenic acid soap to be capable of completing said neutralization and carrying out the distillation in the presence of said caustic alkali and naphthenic acid soap. l i
3. The process of distilling an acid-treated mineral oil which comprises adding SiO-95% of the stoichiometric quantity oi sodium hydroxide necessary to neutralize any acid reacting substance` evolved from any residue of the treating acid during the distillation of the oil, together with a sufficient amount of sodium naphthenate capable of completing said neutralization, and carrying out the distillation in the presence of said sodium hydroxide, and sodium naphthenate.
4. The process of distilling an acid treated mineraloil which comprises adding 90-95% of the stoichiometric quantity of sodium hydroxide solution necessary to neutralize any acid reacting substance evolved from any residue of the treatingacid during the distillation of the oil, said sodium hydroxide solution containing a sufficient amount of sodium naphthenate capable of completing said neutralization, and carrying out the distillaticnin the presence of said sodium hydroxide and sodium naphthenate.
MINOR C. K. JONES. EDWARD C. EULHARDT.
REFERENCES CITED The following references are of record in the file of this patent: f
Priority Applications (1)
| Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
|---|---|---|---|
| US700984A US2455679A (en) | 1946-10-03 | 1946-10-03 | Distillation of acid-treated oils |
Applications Claiming Priority (1)
| Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
|---|---|---|---|
| US700984A US2455679A (en) | 1946-10-03 | 1946-10-03 | Distillation of acid-treated oils |
Publications (1)
| Publication Number | Publication Date |
|---|---|
| US2455679A true US2455679A (en) | 1948-12-07 |
Family
ID=24815615
Family Applications (1)
| Application Number | Title | Priority Date | Filing Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| US700984A Expired - Lifetime US2455679A (en) | 1946-10-03 | 1946-10-03 | Distillation of acid-treated oils |
Country Status (1)
| Country | Link |
|---|---|
| US (1) | US2455679A (en) |
Cited By (3)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| US2563605A (en) * | 1951-08-07 | Distillation of acid-treated oils | ||
| US2584269A (en) * | 1948-10-25 | 1952-02-05 | Standard Oil Dev Co | Separation of oxygenated organic compounds from synthetic naphtha |
| US2885354A (en) * | 1954-12-30 | 1959-05-05 | Sun Oil Co | Distillation of petroleum hydrocarbons |
Citations (8)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| US1904173A (en) * | 1928-05-21 | 1933-04-18 | Standard Oil Dev Co | Method of removing corrosive sulphur from hydrocarbon oils |
| US1969694A (en) * | 1930-09-24 | 1934-08-07 | Texas Co | Process of refining oils |
| US2025766A (en) * | 1933-08-04 | 1935-12-31 | Standard Oil Dev Co | Distillation of acid treated oils |
| US2068979A (en) * | 1936-01-20 | 1937-01-26 | Socony Vacuum Oil Co Inc | Method of preventing corrosion in oil stills |
| US2091239A (en) * | 1934-03-08 | 1937-08-24 | Texas Co | Treating hydrocarbon oils |
| US2269647A (en) * | 1940-01-15 | 1942-01-13 | Gulf Oil Corp | Process of neutralizing acid treated lubricating oil distillates and the like |
| US2280227A (en) * | 1939-09-08 | 1942-04-21 | Standard Oil Dev Co | Refining of petroleum distillates |
| US2408011A (en) * | 1944-04-27 | 1946-09-24 | Standard Oil Dev Co | Method for preventing the corrosion of distillation equipment |
-
1946
- 1946-10-03 US US700984A patent/US2455679A/en not_active Expired - Lifetime
Patent Citations (8)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| US1904173A (en) * | 1928-05-21 | 1933-04-18 | Standard Oil Dev Co | Method of removing corrosive sulphur from hydrocarbon oils |
| US1969694A (en) * | 1930-09-24 | 1934-08-07 | Texas Co | Process of refining oils |
| US2025766A (en) * | 1933-08-04 | 1935-12-31 | Standard Oil Dev Co | Distillation of acid treated oils |
| US2091239A (en) * | 1934-03-08 | 1937-08-24 | Texas Co | Treating hydrocarbon oils |
| US2068979A (en) * | 1936-01-20 | 1937-01-26 | Socony Vacuum Oil Co Inc | Method of preventing corrosion in oil stills |
| US2280227A (en) * | 1939-09-08 | 1942-04-21 | Standard Oil Dev Co | Refining of petroleum distillates |
| US2269647A (en) * | 1940-01-15 | 1942-01-13 | Gulf Oil Corp | Process of neutralizing acid treated lubricating oil distillates and the like |
| US2408011A (en) * | 1944-04-27 | 1946-09-24 | Standard Oil Dev Co | Method for preventing the corrosion of distillation equipment |
Cited By (3)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| US2563605A (en) * | 1951-08-07 | Distillation of acid-treated oils | ||
| US2584269A (en) * | 1948-10-25 | 1952-02-05 | Standard Oil Dev Co | Separation of oxygenated organic compounds from synthetic naphtha |
| US2885354A (en) * | 1954-12-30 | 1959-05-05 | Sun Oil Co | Distillation of petroleum hydrocarbons |
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