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US20110015409A1 - Synthesis of cyclic carbonates - Google Patents

Synthesis of cyclic carbonates Download PDF

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US20110015409A1
US20110015409A1 US12/921,264 US92126409A US2011015409A1 US 20110015409 A1 US20110015409 A1 US 20110015409A1 US 92126409 A US92126409 A US 92126409A US 2011015409 A1 US2011015409 A1 US 2011015409A1
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Michael North
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Newcastle University of Upon Tyne
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    • C07D317/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having two oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms
    • C07D317/08—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having two oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms having the hetero atoms in positions 1 and 3
    • C07D317/10—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having two oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms having the hetero atoms in positions 1 and 3 not condensed with other rings
    • C07D317/32—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having two oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms having the hetero atoms in positions 1 and 3 not condensed with other rings with hetero atoms or with carbon atoms having three bonds to hetero atoms with at the most one bond to halogen, e.g. ester or nitrile radicals, directly attached to ring carbon atoms
    • C07D317/34—Oxygen atoms
    • C07D317/36—Alkylene carbonates; Substituted alkylene carbonates
    • C07D317/38—Ethylene carbonate
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    • B01J31/1625—Coordination complexes, e.g. organometallic complexes, immobilised on an inorganic support, e.g. ship-in-a-bottle type catalysts immobilised by covalent linkages, i.e. pendant complexes with optional linking groups
    • B01J31/1633—Coordination complexes, e.g. organometallic complexes, immobilised on an inorganic support, e.g. ship-in-a-bottle type catalysts immobilised by covalent linkages, i.e. pendant complexes with optional linking groups covalent linkages via silicon containing groups
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    • B01J31/2208—Oxygen, e.g. acetylacetonates
    • B01J31/2226—Anionic ligands, i.e. the overall ligand carries at least one formal negative charge
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    • C07D317/08—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having two oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms having the hetero atoms in positions 1 and 3
    • C07D317/10—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having two oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms having the hetero atoms in positions 1 and 3 not condensed with other rings
    • C07D317/32—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having two oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms having the hetero atoms in positions 1 and 3 not condensed with other rings with hetero atoms or with carbon atoms having three bonds to hetero atoms with at the most one bond to halogen, e.g. ester or nitrile radicals, directly attached to ring carbon atoms
    • C07D317/34—Oxygen atoms
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
    • C07D317/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having two oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms
    • C07D317/08—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having two oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms having the hetero atoms in positions 1 and 3
    • C07D317/10—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having two oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms having the hetero atoms in positions 1 and 3 not condensed with other rings
    • C07D317/32—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having two oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms having the hetero atoms in positions 1 and 3 not condensed with other rings with hetero atoms or with carbon atoms having three bonds to hetero atoms with at the most one bond to halogen, e.g. ester or nitrile radicals, directly attached to ring carbon atoms
    • C07D317/34—Oxygen atoms
    • C07D317/36—Alkylene carbonates; Substituted alkylene carbonates
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    • C07F—ACYCLIC, CARBOCYCLIC OR HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON, HYDROGEN, HALOGEN, OXYGEN, NITROGEN, SULFUR, SELENIUM OR TELLURIUM
    • C07F5/00—Compounds containing elements of Groups 3 or 13 of the Periodic Table
    • C07F5/06—Aluminium compounds
    • C07F5/069—Aluminium compounds without C-aluminium linkages
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    • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
    • B01J—CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROCESSES, e.g. CATALYSIS OR COLLOID CHEMISTRY; THEIR RELEVANT APPARATUS
    • B01J2231/00—Catalytic reactions performed with catalysts classified in B01J31/00
    • B01J2231/30—Addition reactions at carbon centres, i.e. to either C-C or C-X multiple bonds
    • B01J2231/34—Other additions, e.g. Monsanto-type carbonylations, addition to 1,2-C=X or 1,2-C-X triplebonds, additions to 1,4-C=C-C=X or 1,4-C=-C-X triple bonds with X, e.g. O, S, NH/N
    • B01J2231/341—1,2-additions, e.g. aldol or Knoevenagel condensations
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    • B01J2531/00—Additional information regarding catalytic systems classified in B01J31/00
    • B01J2531/02—Compositional aspects of complexes used, e.g. polynuclearity
    • B01J2531/0213—Complexes without C-metal linkages
    • B01J2531/0216—Bi- or polynuclear complexes, i.e. comprising two or more metal coordination centres, without metal-metal bonds, e.g. Cp(Lx)Zr-imidazole-Zr(Lx)Cp
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
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    • B01J2531/00—Additional information regarding catalytic systems classified in B01J31/00
    • B01J2531/02—Compositional aspects of complexes used, e.g. polynuclearity
    • B01J2531/0238—Complexes comprising multidentate ligands, i.e. more than 2 ionic or coordinative bonds from the central metal to the ligand, the latter having at least two donor atoms, e.g. N, O, S, P
    • B01J2531/0241—Rigid ligands, e.g. extended sp2-carbon frameworks or geminal di- or trisubstitution
    • B01J2531/0252—Salen ligands or analogues, e.g. derived from ethylenediamine and salicylaldehyde
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
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    • B01J2531/00—Additional information regarding catalytic systems classified in B01J31/00
    • B01J2531/30—Complexes comprising metals of Group III (IIIA or IIIB) as the central metal
    • B01J2531/31—Aluminium
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    • B01J2540/00—Compositional aspects of coordination complexes or ligands in catalyst systems
    • B01J2540/40—Non-coordinating groups comprising nitrogen
    • B01J2540/42—Quaternary ammonium groups
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    • C07B—GENERAL METHODS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY; APPARATUS THEREFOR
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    • C07B2200/11—Compounds covalently bound to a solid support

Definitions

  • the present invention relates to a process for synthesising cyclic carbonates from epoxides and carbon dioxide using aluminium(salen) complexes as catalysts.
  • the invention also provides novel aluminium(salen) complexes, and their synthesis.
  • Cyclic carbonates are commercially important products currently manufactured on a multi-tonne scale for use as polar aprotic solvents, additives, antifoam agents for anti-freeze, plasticisers, and monomers for polymer synthesis (see Darensbourg, et al., Coord. Chem. Rev., 153 (1996), 155-174; Coates, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 43 (2004), 6618-6639).
  • cyclic carbonates generally involves the reaction of epoxides with carbon dioxide, and hence could be used to sequestrate carbon dioxide, thus reducing the level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
  • Catalysts for the synthesis of cyclic carbonates from epoxides and carbon dioxide are known in the art (see Darensbourg, et al., Coord. Chem. Rev., 153 (1996), 155-174; Yoshida, et al., Chem. Eur. J., 10 (2004), 2886-2893; Sun, et al., J. Organomet. Chem., 690 (2005), 3490-3497) although these require elevated reaction temperatures and/or high pressures of carbon dioxide, the reaction often being conducted in supercritical carbon dioxide (see Lu, et al., App. Cat. A, 234 (2002), 25-33).
  • Ratzenhofer, et al. ( Angew. Chemie Int. Ed. Engl., 19 (1980), 317-318) succeeded in carrying out the reaction between 2-methyloxirane and carbon dioxide at room temperature and atmospheric pressure using catalysts consisting of a mixture of a metal halide and a Lewis base. However, a long reaction time of 7 days was required.
  • Kisch, et al. ( Chem. Ber., 119 (1986), 1090-1094), carrying out the same reaction under the same conditions and also using catalysts of this type, reports a reaction time of 3.5 to 93 hours using up to 4 mol % of a ZnCl 2 catalyst and up to 16 mol % of a (nButyl) 4 NI catalyst.
  • Lu, et al., J. Mol. Cat. A, 210 (2004), 31-34; J Cat., 227 (2004), 537-541) describe the use of tetradentate Schiff-base aluminium complexes in conjunction with a quaternary ammonium salt or polyether-KY complexes as catalyst systems for the reaction of various epoxides with carbon dioxide at room temperature and about 6 atmospheres.
  • Metal(salen) complexes including aluminium(salen) complexes, are well-known in the art for their use as catalysts. Lu, et al., App. Cat. A, 234 (2002), 25-33, describes the use of a monomeric aluminium(salen) catalyst.
  • dimeric aluminium(salen) complexes are highly active catalysts for the reaction of epoxides with carbon dioxide to produce cyclic carbonates, and allow the reaction to be carried out at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, using short reaction times and commercially viable amounts of catalyst, as described in Melendez, J., et al., Eur J. Inorg Chem, 2007, 3323-3326 and co-pending UK patent application No. 0708016.1, filed 25 Apr. 2007, now published as WO 2008/132474.
  • the present inventor has now found that it is possible to incorporate the co-catalyst required in this work into the catalyst molecule, so as to reduce or eliminate the amount of separate components needed. Furthermore, the present inventor has also found it is possible to immobilise the combined catalyst and co-catalyst on a solid support.
  • a first aspect of the invention provides a dimeric aluminium(salen) catalyst of formula I:
  • Y-Q is CR C1 ⁇ N or CR C1 R C2 —NR N1 , where R C1 , R C2 and R N1 are independently selected from H, halo, optionally substituted C 1-20 alkyl, optionally substituted C 5-20 aryl, ether and nitro;
  • each of the substituents R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 8 , R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , R 12 , R 13 , R 14 , R 15 , and R 16 is independently selected from H, halo, optionally substituted C 1-20 alkyl (including CAr 3 , where Ar is a C 5-20 aryl group), optionally substituted C 5-20 aryl, optionally substituted C 3-20 heterocyclyl, ether and nitro;
  • X 1 and X 2 are independently either (i) a C 2-5 alkylene chain, which is optionally substituted by one or more groups selected from C 1-4 alkyl and C 5-7 aryl, or a C 1-3 bisoxyalkylene chain, which is optionally substituted by one or more groups selected from C 1-4 alkyl and C 5-7 aryl or (ii) represent a divalent group selected from C 5-7 arylene, C 5-7 cyclic alkylene and C 3-7 heterocyclylene, which may be optionally substituted;
  • R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 8 , R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , R 12 , R 13 , R 14 , R 15 , and R 16 is selected from L-A, where L is a single bond or a C 1-10 alkylene group and A is an ammonium group paired with a counterion selected from Cl, Br and I; and/or (b) at least one of X 1 and X 2 is a divalent C 3-7 heterocyclene group, containing a ring atom which is a quaternary nitrogen atom paired with a counterion selected from Cl, Br and I; and/or (c) at least one of X 1 and X 2 is a C 2-5 alkylene chain or a C 1-3 bisoxyalkylene chain, substituted by a group -Q-L-A, where Q is either —C( ⁇ O)—O—
  • the catalyst when the catalyst is covalently bound to a solid support, only one linking group to the solid support is present. However, one or more ammonium groups/quaternary nitrogen atoms may be present.
  • the catalysts of formula I where: (a) at least one of R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 8 , R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , R 12 , R 13 , R 14 , R 15 , and R 16 is selected from L-A; and/or (b) at least one of X 1 and X 2 is a divalent C 3-7 heterocyclene group, containing a ring atom which is a quaternary nitrogen atom paired with a counterion selected from Cl, Br and I; and/or
  • At least one of X 1 and X 2 is a C 2-5 alkylene chain or a C 1-3 bisoxyalkylene chain, substituted by a group -Q-L-A, where Q is either —C( ⁇ O)— or a single bond, may be immobilized on a solid support, either by the use of steric effects or by electrostatic binding.
  • the catalyst of formula I may be a (wholly or partially) racemic mixture or other mixture thereof, for example, a mixture enriched in one enantiomer or diastereoisomer, a single enantiomer or diastereoisomer, or a mixture of the stereoisomers.
  • Methods for the preparation e.g., asymmetric synthesis
  • separation e.g., fractional crystallisation and chromatographic means
  • the catalyst of formula I is a single enantiomer, if a chiral centre is present.
  • the dimeric aluminium(salen) catalysts of the first aspect may be of formula Ia:
  • R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 and X 1 are as defined above; and (a) at least one of R 1 , R 2 , R 3 and R 4 is selected from L-A, where L is a single bond or a C 1-10 alkylene group and A is an ammonium group paired with a counterion selected from Cl, Br and I; and/or (b) X 1 is a divalent C 3-7 heterocyclene group, containing a ring atom which is a quaternary nitrogen atom paired with a counterion selected from Cl, Br and I; or (c) X 1 is a C 2-5 alkylene chain or a C 1-3 bisoxyalkylene chain, substituted by a group -Q-L-A, where Q is either —C( ⁇ O)— or a single bond.
  • a second aspect of the present invention provides a process for the production of cyclic carbonates comprising contacting an epoxide with carbon dioxide in the presence of a dimeric aluminium(salen) catalyst according to the first aspect of the invention.
  • reaction of the second aspect may be defined as follows:
  • R C3 and R C4 are independently selected from H, optionally substituted C 1-10 alkyl, optionally substituted C 3-20 heterocyclyl and optionally substituted C 5-20 aryl, or R C3 and R C4 form an optionally substituted linking group between the two carbon atoms to which they are respectively attached.
  • the linking group, together with the carbon atoms to which it is attached, may form an optionally substituted C 5-20 cycloalkyl or C 5-20 heterocylyl group.
  • the C 5-20 cycloalkyl or C 5-20 heterocylyl group may be substituted only in a single position on the ring, for example, adjacent the epoxide.
  • Suitable substituents include optionally substituted C 1-10 alkyl, optionally substituted C 3-20 heterocyclyl and optionally substituted C 5-20 aryl.
  • a possible substituent for the C 1-10 alkyl group is a C 5-20 aryl group.
  • the second aspect of the invention also provides the use of a dimeric aluminium(salen) catalyst of the first aspect of the invention for the production of cyclic carbonates from epoxides.
  • a third aspect of the invention provides a process for the synthesis of a dimeric aluminium(salen) catalyst of formula I.
  • FIG. 1 shows a flow reactor for use with the catalysts of the present invention.
  • Epoxide may pertain to a compound of the formula:
  • R C3 and R C4 are independently selected from H, optionally substituted C 1-10 alkyl, optionally substituted C 3-20 heterocyclyl and optionally substituted C 5-20 aryl, or R C3 and R C4 form an optionally substituted linking group between the two carbon atoms to which they are respectively attached.
  • the linking group, together with the carbon atoms to which it is attached, may form an optionally substituted C 5-20 cycloalkyl or C 5-20 heterocylyl group.
  • the C 5-20 cycloalkyl or C 5-20 heterocylyl group may be substituted only in a single position on the ring, for example, adjacent the epoxide.
  • Suitable substituents include optionally substituted C 1-10 alkyl, optionally substituted C 3-20 heterocyclyl and optionally substituted C 5-20 aryl.
  • the optional substituents may be selected from: C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-20 heterocyclyl, C 5-20 aryl, halo, hydroxy, ether, cyano, nitro, carboxy, ester, amido, amino, acylamido, ureido, acyloxy, thiol, thioether, sulfoxide, sulfonyl, thioamido and sulfonamino.
  • the C 1-10 alkyl group is substituted by a C 5-20 aryl group.
  • the epoxide is a terminal epoxide, i.e. R C4 ⁇ H.
  • R C3 is selected from optionally substituted C 1-4 alkyl and optionally substituted C 5-7 aryl. In some of these embodiments R C3 is unsubstituted.
  • Cyclic carbonate the term “cyclic carbonate”, as used herein, may pertain to a compound of the formula:
  • R C3 and R C4 are as defined above.
  • Catalysts of the present invention may be immobilized on a solid support by:
  • the solid support needs to contain or be derivatized to contain reactive functionalities which can serve for covalently linking a compound to the surface thereof.
  • reactive functionalities which can serve for covalently linking a compound to the surface thereof.
  • Such materials are well known in the art and include, by way of example, silicon dioxide supports containing reactive Si—OH groups, polyacrylamide supports, polystyrene supports, polyethyleneglycol supports, and the like.
  • a further example is sol-gel materials.
  • Silica can be modified to include a 3-chloropropyloxy group by treatment with (3-chloropropyl)triethoxysilane.
  • Al pillared clay which can also be modified to include a 3-chloropropyloxy group by treatment with (3-chloropropyl)triethoxysilane.
  • Such supports will preferably take the form of small beads, pins/crowns, laminar surfaces, pellets or disks. They may also take the form of powders.
  • Solid supports for covalent binding of particular interest in the present invention include siliceous MCM-41 and MCM-48 (modified with 3-aminopropyl groups), ITQ-2 and amorphous silica, SBA-15 and hexagonal mesoporous silica. Also of particular interest are sol-gels. Other conventional forms may also be used.
  • zeolites which may be natural or modified.
  • the pore size must be sufficiently small to trap the catalyst but sufficiently large to allow the passage of reactants and products to and from the catalyst.
  • Suitable zeolites include zeolites X, Y and EMT as well as those which have been partially degraded to provide mesopores, that allow easier transport of reactants and products.
  • typical solid supports may include silica, Indian clay, Al-pillared clay, Al-MCM-41, K10, laponite, bentonite, and zinc-aluminum layered double hydroxide. Of these silica and montmorillonite clay are of particular interest.
  • Alkyl refers to a monovalent moiety obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from a carbon atom of a hydrocarbon having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms (unless otherwise specified), which may be aliphatic or alicyclic and which may be saturated or unsaturated (e.g. partially saturated, fully unsaturated).
  • alkyl includes the sub-classes alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkynyl, etc., as discussed below.
  • Alkylene refers to a divalent moiety obtained by removing two hydrogen atoms from one or two carbon atoms of a hydrocarbon having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms (unless otherwise specified), which may be aliphatic or alicyclic and which may be saturated or unsaturated (e.g. partially saturated, fully unsaturated):
  • alkylene includes the sub-classes alkenylene, alkynylene, cycloalkylene, cycloalkenylene, cycloalkynylene, etc., as discussed below.
  • C 1-4 alkyl in the context of alkyl and alkylene groups, the prefixes (e.g. C 1-4 , C 1-7 , C 1-20 , C 2-7 , C 3-7 , etc.) denote the number of carbon atoms, or the range of number of carbon atoms.
  • C 1-4 alkyl as used herein, pertains to an alkyl group having from 1 to 4 carbon atoms.
  • groups of alkyl groups include C 1-4 alkyl (“lower alkyl”), C 1-7 alkyl and C 1-20 alkyl.
  • the first prefix may vary according to other limitations; for example, for unsaturated alkyl groups, the first prefix must be at least 2; for cyclic alkyl groups, the first prefix must be at least 3; etc.
  • C 1-7 alkylene as used herein, pertains to an alkylene group having from 1 to 7 carbon atoms.
  • Examples of (unsubstituted) saturated alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl (C 1 ), ethyl (C 2 ), propyl (C 3 ), butyl (C 4 ), pentyl (C 5 ), hexyl (C 6 ), and heptyl (C 7 ).
  • Examples of (unsubstituted) saturated linear alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl (C 1 ), ethyl (C 2 ), n-propyl (C 3 ), n-butyl (C 4 ), n-pentyl (amyl) (C 5 ), n-hexyl (C 6 ), and n-heptyl (C 7 ).
  • Examples of (unsubstituted) saturated branched alkyl groups include iso-propyl (C 3 ), iso-butyl (C 4 ), sec-butyl (C 4 ), tert-butyl (C 4 ), iso-pentyl (C 5 ), and neo-pentyl (C 5 ).
  • Examples of (unsubstituted) saturated alkylene groups include, but are not limited to, methylene (C 1 ), ethylene (C 2 ), propylene (C 3 ), butylene (C 4 ), pentylene (C 5 ), hexylene (C 6 ), and heptylene (C 7 ).
  • Examples of (unsubstituted) saturated linear alkylene groups include, but are not limited to, methylene (C 1 ), ethylene (C 2 ), n-propylene (C 3 ), n-butylene (C 4 ), n-pentylene (amylene) (C 5 ), n-hexylene (C 6 ), and n-heptylene (C 7 ).
  • Examples of (unsubstituted) saturated branched alkyl groups include iso-propylene (C 3 ), iso-butylene (C 4 ), sec-butylene (C 4 ), tert-butylene (C 4 ), iso-pentylene (C 5 ), and neo-pentylene (C 5 ).
  • Alkenyl refers to an alkyl group having one or more carbon-carbon double bonds. Examples of groups of alkenyl groups include C 2-4 alkenyl, C 2-7 alkenyl, C 2-20 alkenyl.
  • Examples of (unsubstituted) unsaturated alkenyl groups include, but are not limited to, ethenyl (vinyl, —CH ⁇ CH 2 ), 1-propenyl (—CH ⁇ CH—CH 3 ), 2-propenyl (allyl, —CH 2 —CH ⁇ CH 2 ), isopropenyl (1-methylvinyl, —C(CH 3 ) ⁇ CH 2 ), butenyl (C 4 ), pentenyl (C 5 ), and hexenyl (C 6 ).
  • Alkenylene refers to an alkylene group having one or more carbon-carbon double bonds. Examples of groups of alkenylene groups include C 2-4 alkenylene, C 2-7 alkenylene, C 2-20 alkenylene.
  • Alkynyl refers to an alkyl group having one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds. Examples of groups of alkynyl groups include C 2-4 alkynyl, C 2-7 alkynyl, C 2-20 alkynyl.
  • Examples of (unsubstituted) unsaturated alkynyl groups include, but are not limited to, ethynyl (ethinyl, — ⁇ CH) and 2-propynyl (propargyl, —CH 2 —C ⁇ CH).
  • Alkynylene The term “alkynyl”, as used herein, pertains to an alkylene group having one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds. Examples of groups of alkynylene groups include C 2-4 alkynylene, C 2-7 alkynylene, C 2-20 alkynylene.
  • Cycloalkyl refers to an alkyl group which is also a cyclyl group; that is, a monovalent moiety obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from an alicyclic ring atom of a carbocyclic ring of a carbocyclic compound, which carbocyclic ring may be saturated or unsaturated (e.g. partially unsaturated, fully unsaturated), which moiety has from 3-20 carbon atoms (unless otherwise specified), including from 3 to 20 ring atoms.
  • the term “cycloalkyl” includes the sub-classes cycloalkenyl and cycloalkynyl.
  • each ring has from 3 to 7 ring atoms.
  • groups of cycloalkyl groups include C 3-20 cycloalkyl, C 3-15 cycloalkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 3-7 cycloalkyl.
  • Cycloalkylene refers to an alkylene group which is also a cyclyl group; that is, a divalent moiety obtained by removing two hydrogen atoms from one or two alicyclic ring atoms of a carbocyclic ring of a carbocyclic compound, which carbocyclic ring may be saturated or unsaturated (e.g. partially unsaturated, fully unsaturated), which moiety has from 3-20 carbon atoms (unless otherwise specified), including from 3 to 20 ring atoms.
  • cycloalkylene includes the sub-classes cycloalkenylene and cycloalkynylene.
  • each ring has from 3 to 7 ring atoms.
  • groups of cycloalkylene groups include C 3-20 cycloalkylene, C 3-15 cycloalkylene, C 3-10 cycloalkylene, C 3-7 cycloalkylene.
  • Cyclic alkylene refers to a divalent moiety obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from each of two adjacent alicyclic ring atoms of a carbocyclic ring of a carbocyclic compound, which carbocyclic ring may be saturated or unsaturated (e.g. partially saturated, fully unsaturated), which moiety has from 3 to 20 carbon atoms (unless otherwise specified), including from 3 to 20 ring atoms. Preferably each ring has from 5 to 7 ring atoms.
  • groups of cyclic alkylene groups include C 3-20 cyclic alkylenes, C 3-15 cyclic alkylenes, C 3-10 cyclic alkylenes, C 3-7 cyclic alkylenes.
  • cycloalkyl groups and cyclic alkylene groups include, but are not limited to, those derived from:
  • indene C 9
  • indane e.g., 2,3-dihydro-1H-indene
  • tetralin (1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene)
  • C 10 acenaphthene
  • fluorene C 13
  • phenalene C 13
  • acephenanthrene C 15
  • aceanthrene C 16
  • cholanthrene C 20
  • Heterocyclyl refers to a monovalent moiety obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from a ring atom of a heterocyclic compound, which moiety has from 3 to 20 ring atoms (unless otherwise specified), of which from 1 to 10 are ring heteroatoms.
  • each ring has from 3 to 7 ring atoms, of which from 1 to 4 are ring heteroatoms.
  • Heterocyclylene refers to a divalent moiety obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from each of two adjacent ring atoms of a heterocyclic compound, which moiety has from 3 to 20 ring atoms (unless otherwise specified), of which from 1 to 10 are ring heteroatoms.
  • each ring has from 3 to 7 ring atoms, of which from 1 to 4 are ring heteroatoms.
  • the heterocyclyl or heterocyclylene group may be bonded via carbon or hetero ring atoms.
  • the heterocyclylene group is bonded via two carbon atoms.
  • heterocyclyl or heterocyclylene groups When referring to heterocyclyl or heterocyclylene groups, the prefixes. (e.g. C 3-20 , C 3-7 , C 5-6 , etc.) denote the number of ring atoms, or range of number of ring atoms, whether carbon atoms or heteroatoms.
  • C 5-6 heterocyclyl as used herein, pertains to a heterocyclyl group having 5 or 6 ring atoms.
  • groups of heterocyclyl groups include C 3-20 heterocyclyl, C 5-20 heterocyclyl, C 3-15 heterocyclyl, C 5-15 heterocyclyl, C 3-12 heterocyclyl, C 5-12 heterocyclyl, C 3-10 heterocyclyl, C 5-10 heterocyclyl, C 3-7 heterocyclyl, C 5-7 heterocyclyl, and C 5-6 heterocyclyl.
  • C 5-6 heterocyclylene refers to a heterocyclylene group having 5 or 6 ring atoms.
  • groups of heterocyclylene groups include C 3-20 heterocyclylene, C 5-20 heterocyclylene, C 3-15 heterocyclylene, C 5-15 heterocyclylene, C 3-12 heterocyclylene, C 5-12 heterocyclylene, C 3-10 heterocyclylene, C 5-10 heterocyclylene, C 3-7 heterocyclylene, C 5-7 heterocyclylene, and C 5-6 heterocyclylene.
  • monocyclic heterocyclyl and heterocyclylene groups include, but are not limited to, those derived from:
  • N 1 aziridine (C 3 ), azetidine (C 4 ), pyrrolidine (tetrahydropyrrole) (C 5 ), pyrroline (e.g., 3-pyrroline, 2,5-dihydropyrrole) (C 5 ), 2H-pyrrole or 3H-pyrrole (isopyrrole, isoazole) (C 5 ), piperidine (C 6 ), dihydropyridine (C 6 ), tetrahydropyridine (C 6 ), azepine (C 7 );
  • O 1 oxirane (C 3 ), oxetane (C 4 ), oxolane (tetrahydrofuran) (C 5 ), oxole (dihydrofuran) (C 5 ), oxane (tetrahydropyran) (C 6 ), dihydropyran (C 6 ), pyran (C 6 ), oxepin (C 7 );
  • N 2 imidazolidine (C 5 ), pyrazolidine (diazolidine) (C 5 ), imidazoline (C 5 ), pyrazoline (dihydropyrazole) (C 5 ), piperazine (C 6 );
  • N 1 O 1 tetrahydrooxazole (C 5 ), dihydrooxazole (C 5 ), tetrahydroisoxazole (C 5 ), dihydroisoxazole (C 5 ), morpholine (C 6 ), tetrahydrooxazine (C 6 ), dihydrooxazine (C 6 ), oxazine (C 6 );
  • N 1 S 1 thiazoline (C 5 ), thiazolidine (C 5 ), thiomorpholine (C 6 );
  • O 1 S 1 oxathiole (C 5 ) and oxathiane (thioxane) (C 6 ); and,
  • N 1 O 1 S 1 oxathiazine (C 6 ).
  • substituted (non-aromatic) monocyclic heterocyclyl and heterocyclylene groups include those derived from saccharides, in cyclic form, for example, furanoses (C 5 ), such as arabinofuranose, lyxofuranose, ribofuranose, and xylofuranse, and pyranoses (C 6 ), such as allopyranose, altropyranose, glucopyranose, mannopyranose, gulopyranose, idopyranose, galactopyranose, and talopyranose.
  • furanoses C 5
  • arabinofuranose such as arabinofuranose, lyxofuranose, ribofuranose, and xylofuranse
  • pyranoses C 6
  • allopyranose altropyranose
  • glucopyranose glucopyranose
  • mannopyranose gulopyranose
  • C 5-20 aryl refers to a monovalent moiety obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from an aromatic ring atom of a C 5-20 aromatic compound, said compound having one ring, or two or more rings (e.g., fused), and having from 5 to 20 ring atoms, and wherein at least one of said ring(s) is an aromatic ring.
  • each ring has from 5 to 7 carbon atoms.
  • the ring atoms may be all carbon atoms, as in “carboaryl groups” in which case the group may conveniently be referred to as a “C 5-20 carboaryl” group.
  • C 5-20 arylene refers to a divalent moiety obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from each of two adjacent ring atoms of a C 5-20 aromatic compound, said compound having one ring, or two or more rings (e.g., fused), and having from 5 to 20 ring atoms, and wherein at least one of said ring(s) is an aromatic ring.
  • each ring has from 5 to 7 carbon atoms.
  • the ring atoms may be all carbon atoms, as in “carboarylene groups” in which case the group may conveniently be referred to as a “C 5-20 carboarylene” group.
  • C 5-20 aryl and C 5-20 arylene groups which do not have ring heteroatoms include, but are not limited to, those derived from benzene (i.e. phenyl)(C 6 ), naphthalene (C 10 ), anthracene (C 14 ), phenanthrene (C 14 ), and pyrene (C 16 ).
  • the ring atoms may include one or more heteroatoms, including but not limited to oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur, as in “heteroaryl groups” or “heteroarylene groups”.
  • the group may conveniently be referred to as a “C 5-20 heteroaryl” or “C 5-20 heteroarylene” group, wherein “C 5-20 ” denotes ring atoms, whether carbon atoms or heteroatoms.
  • each ring has from 5 to 7 ring atoms, of which from 0 to 4 are ring heteroatoms.
  • the heteroaryl or heteroarylene group may be bonded via carbon or hetero ring atoms.
  • the heteroarylene group is bonded via two carbon atoms.
  • C 5-20 heteroaryl and C 5-20 heteroarylene groups include, but are not limited to, C 5 heteroaryl and C 5 heteroarylene groups derived from furan (oxole), thiophene (thiole), pyrrole (azole), imidazole (1,3-diazole), pyrazole (1,2-diazole), triazole, oxazole, isoxazole, thiazole, isothiazole, oxadiazole, tetrazole and oxatriazole; and C 6 heteroaryl groups derived from isoxazine, pyridine (azine), pyridazine (1,2-diazine), pyrimidine (1,3-diazine; e.g., cytosine, thymine, uracil), pyrazine (1,4-diazine) and triazine.
  • C 5 heteroaryl and C 5 heteroarylene groups derived from furan (
  • C 5-20 heteroaryl and C 5-20 heteroarylene groups which comprise fused rings include, but are not limited to, C 9 heteroaryl and C 9 heteroarylene groups derived from benzofuran, isobenzofuran, benzothiophene, indole, isoindole; C 10 heteroaryl and C 10 heteroarylene groups derived from quinoline, isoquinoline, benzodiazine, pyridopyridine; C 1-4 heteroaryl and C 1-4 heteroarylene groups derived from acridine and xanthene.
  • BisoxyC 1-3 alkylene —O—(CH 2 ) m —O—, where m is 1 to 3.
  • alkyl, alkylene, cyclic alkylene, bisoxyalkylene, heterocyclyl, heterocyclylene, aryl, and arylene groups may themselves optionally be substituted with one or more groups selected from themselves and the additional substituents listed below.
  • Halo —F, —Cl, —Br, and —I.
  • Ether —OR, wherein R is an ether substituent, for example, a C 1-7 alkyl group (also referred to as a C 1-7 alkoxy group), a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group (also referred to as a C 3-20 heterocyclyloxy group), or a C 5-20 aryl group (also referred to as a C 5-20 aryloxy group), preferably a C 1-7 alkyl group.
  • R is an ether substituent, for example, a C 1-7 alkyl group (also referred to as a C 1-7 alkoxy group), a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group (also referred to as a C 3-20 heterocyclyloxy group), or a C 5-20 aryl group (also referred to as a C 5-20 aryloxy group), preferably a C 1-7 alkyl group.
  • R is an acyl substituent, for example, H, a C 1-7 alkyl group (also referred to as C 1-7 alkylacyl or C 1-7 alkanoyl), a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group (also referred to as C 3-20 heterocyclylacyl), or a C 5-20 aryl group (also referred to as C 5-20 arylacyl), preferably a C 1-7 alkyl group.
  • R is an acyl substituent, for example, H, a C 1-7 alkyl group (also referred to as C 1-7 alkylacyl or C 1-7 alkanoyl), a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group (also referred to as C 3-20 heterocyclylacyl), or a C 5-20 aryl group (also referred to as C 5-20 arylacyl), preferably a C 1-7 alkyl group.
  • acyl groups include, but are not limited to, —C( ⁇ O)CH 3 (acetyl), —C( ⁇ O)CH 2 CH 3 (propionyl), —C( ⁇ O)C(CH 3 ) 3 (pivaloyl), and —C( ⁇ O)Ph (benzoyl, phenone).
  • Ester (carboxylate, carboxylic acid ester, oxycarbonyl): —C( ⁇ O)OR, wherein R is an ester substituent, for example, a C 1-7 alkyl group, a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group, or a C 5-20 aryl group, preferably a C 1-7 alkyl group.
  • ester groups include, but are not limited to, —C( ⁇ O)OCH 3 , —C( ⁇ O)OCH 2 CH 3 , —C( ⁇ O)OC(CH 3 ) 3 , and —C( ⁇ O)OPh.
  • amido groups include, but are not limited to, —C( ⁇ O)NH 2 , —C( ⁇ O)NHCH 3 , —C( ⁇ O)N(CH 3 ) 2 , —C( ⁇ O)NHCH 2 CH 3 , and —C( ⁇ O)N(CH 2 CH 3 ) 2 , as well as amido groups in which R 1 and R 2 , together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, form a heterocyclic structure as in, for example, piperidinocarbonyl, morpholinocarbonyl, thiomorpholinocarbonyl, and piperazinylcarbonyl.
  • R 1 and R 2 are independently amino substituents, for example, hydrogen, a C 1-7 alkyl group (also referred to as C 1-7 alkylamino or di-C 1-7 alkylamino), a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group, or a C 5-20 aryl group, preferably H or a C 1-7 alkyl group, or, in the case of a “cyclic” amino group, R 1 and R 2 , taken together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, form a heterocyclic ring having from 4 to 8 ring atoms.
  • R 1 and R 2 are independently amino substituents, for example, hydrogen, a C 1-7 alkyl group (also referred to as C 1-7 alkylamino or di-C 1-7 alkylamino), a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group, or a C 5-20 aryl group, preferably H or a C 1-7 alkyl group, or, in the case of a “cyclic” amino group, R 1 and R 2 ,
  • amino groups include, but are not limited to, —NH 2 , —NHCH 3 , —NHCH(CH 3 ) 2 , —N(CH 3 ) 2 , —N(CH 2 CH 3 ) 2 , and —NHPh.
  • cyclic amino groups include, but are not limited to, aziridinyl, azetidinyl, pyrrolidinyl, piperidino, piperazinyl, perhydrodiazepinyl, morpholino, and thiomorpholino.
  • the cyclic amino groups may be substituted on their ring by any of the substituents defined here, for example carboxy, carboxylate and amido.
  • Ammonium —NR N1 R N2 R N3 , wherein R N1 , R N2 and R N3 are independently ammonium substituents, for example, a C 1-7 alkyl group, a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group, or a C 5-20 aryl group and where one or two of R N1 , R N2 and R N3 may also be H.
  • R N1 , R N2 and R N3 may be a C 1-3 alkoxy (—(CH 2 ) 1-3 —OH)group.
  • Two or three of the ammonium substituents may join together to form cyclic or cage-like structures.
  • ammonium groups include, but are not limited to, —NH(CH 3 ) 2 , —NH(CH(CH 3 ) 2 ) 2 , —N(CH 3 ) 3 , —N(CH 2 CH 3 ) 3 , and —NH 2 Ph.
  • Ammonium linking group —NR N1 R N2 R N4 —, wherein R N1 and R N2 are independently ammonium substituents, for example, a C 1-7 alkyl group, a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group, or a C 5-20 aryl group and where one or both of R N1 and R N2 may also be H.
  • the two ammonium substituents may join together to form a cyclic structure.
  • R N4 is a divalent ammonium substituent, for example, a C 1-7 alkylene group, a C 3-20 heterocyclylene group, or a C 5-20 arylene group or a divalent C 1-3 alkyloxylene (—(CH 2 ) 1-3 —O—) group.
  • ammonium linking groups include, but are not limited to, —NH(CH 3 )(CH 2 )—, —NH(CH(CH 3 ) 2 )(C(CH 3 ) 2 )—, —N(CH 3 ) 2 (CH 2 )—, —N(CH 2 CH 3 ) 2 (CH 2 CH 2 )—, and —NHPh(CH 2 )—.
  • acylamide groups include, but are not limited to, —NHC( ⁇ O)CH 3 , —NHC( ⁇ O)CH 2 CH 3 , and —NHC( ⁇ O)Ph.
  • R 1 and R 2 may together form a cyclic structure, as in, for example, succinimidyl, maleimidyl, and phthalimidyl:
  • R 2 and R 3 are independently amino substituents, as defined for amino groups, and R 1 is a ureido substituent, for example, hydrogen, a C 1-7 alkyl group, a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group, or a C 5-20 aryl group, preferably hydrogen or a C 1-7 alkyl group.
  • ureido groups include, but are not limited to, —NHCONH 2 , —NHCONHMe, —NHCONHEt, —NHCONMe 2 , —NHCONEt 2 , —NMeCONH 2 , —NMeCONHMe, —NMeCONHEt, —NMeCONMe 2 , —NMeCONEt 2 and —NHCONHPh.
  • R is an acyloxy substituent, for example, a C 1-7 alkyl group, a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group, or a C 5-20 aryl group, preferably a C 1-7 alkyl group.
  • acyloxy groups include, but are not limited to, —OC( ⁇ O)CH 3 (acetoxy), —OC( ⁇ O)CH 2 CH 3 , —OC( ⁇ O)C(CH 3 ) 3 , —OC( ⁇ O)Ph, —OC( ⁇ O)C 6 H 4 F, and —OC( ⁇ O)CH 2 Ph.
  • C 1-7 alkylthio groups include, but are not limited to, —SCH 3 and —SCH 2 CH 3 .
  • R is a sulfoxide substituent, for example, a C 1-7 alkyl group, a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group, or a C 5-20 aryl group, preferably a C 1-7 alkyl group.
  • sulfoxide groups include, but are not limited to, —S( ⁇ O)CH 3 and —S( ⁇ O)CH 2 CH 3 .
  • Sulfonyl (sulfone) —S( ⁇ O) 2 R, wherein R is a sulfone substituent, for example, a C 1-7 alkyl group, a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group, or a C 5-20 aryl group, preferably a C 1-7 alkyl group.
  • R is a sulfone substituent, for example, a C 1-7 alkyl group, a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group, or a C 5-20 aryl group, preferably a C 1-7 alkyl group.
  • sulfone groups include, but are not limited to, —S( ⁇ O) 2 CH 3 (methanesulfonyl, mesyl), —S( ⁇ O) 2 CF 3 , —S( ⁇ O) 2 CH 2 CH 3 , and 4-methylphenylsulfonyl (tosyl).
  • Thioamido (thiocarbamyl) —C( ⁇ S)NR 1 R 2 , wherein R 1 and R 2 are independently amino substituents, as defined for amino groups.
  • amido groups include, but are not limited to, —C( ⁇ S)NH 2 , —C( ⁇ S)NHCH 3 , —C( ⁇ S)N(CH 3 ) 2 , and —C( ⁇ S)NHCH 2 CH 3 .
  • Sulfonamino —NR 1 S( ⁇ O) 2 R, wherein R 1 is an amino substituent, as defined for amino groups, and R is a sulfonamino substituent, for example, a C 1-7 alkyl group, a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group, or a C 5-20 aryl group, preferably a C 1-7 alkyl group.
  • R 1 is an amino substituent, as defined for amino groups
  • R is a sulfonamino substituent, for example, a C 1-7 alkyl group, a C 3-20 heterocyclyl group, or a C 5-20 aryl group, preferably a C 1-7 alkyl group.
  • sulfonamino groups include, but are not limited to, —NHS( ⁇ O) 2 CH 3 , —NHS( ⁇ O) 2 Ph and —N(CH 3 )S( ⁇ O) 2 C 6 H 5 .
  • C 1-3 alkylene —(CH 2 ) m —, where m is 1 to 3.
  • chemically protected form is used herein in the conventional chemical sense and pertains to a compound in which one or more reactive functional groups are protected from undesirable chemical reactions under specified conditions (e.g., pH, temperature, radiation, solvent, and the like).
  • specified conditions e.g., pH, temperature, radiation, solvent, and the like.
  • well known chemical methods are employed to reversibly render unreactive a functional group, which otherwise would be reactive, under specified conditions.
  • one or more reactive functional groups are in the Balm of a protected or protecting group (also known as a masked or masking group or a blocked or blocking group).
  • a wide variety of such “protecting,” “blocking,” or “masking” methods are widely used and well known in organic synthesis.
  • a compound which has two nonequivalent reactive functional groups both of which would be reactive under specified conditions, may be derivatized to render one of the functional groups “protected,” and therefore unreactive, under the specified conditions; so protected, the compound may be used as a reactant which has effectively only one reactive functional group.
  • the protected group may be “deprotected” to return it to its original functionality.
  • a hydroxy group may be protected as an ether (—OR) or an ester (—OC( ⁇ O)R), for example, as: a t-butyl ether; a benzyl, benzhydryl (diphenylmethyl), or trityl (triphenylmethyl)ether; a trimethylsilyl or t-butyldimethylsilyl ether; or an acetyl ester (—OC( ⁇ O)CH 3 , —OAc).
  • ether —OR
  • an ester —OC( ⁇ O)R
  • an aldehyde or ketone group may be protected as an acetal (R—CH(OR) 2 ) or ketal (R 2 C(OR) 2 ), respectively, in which the carbonyl group (>C ⁇ O) is converted to a diether (>C(OR) 2 ), by reaction with, for example, a primary alcohol.
  • the aldehyde or ketone group is readily regenerated by hydrolysis using a large excess of water in the presence of acid.
  • an amine group may be protected, for example, as an amide (—NRCO—R) or a urethane (—NRCO—OR), for example, as: a methyl amide (—NHCO—CH 3 ); a benzyloxy amide (—NHCO—OCH 2 C 6 H 5 , —NH-Cbz); as a t-butoxy amide (—NHCO—OC(CH 3 ) 3 , —NH-Boc); a 2-biphenyl-2-propoxy amide (—NHCO—OC(CH 3 ) 2 C 6 H 4 C 6 H 5 , —NH-Bpoc), as a 9-fluorenylmethoxy amide (—NH-Fmoc), as a 6-nitroveratryloxy amide (—NH-Nvoc), as a 2-trimethylsilylethyloxy amide (—NH-Teoc), as a 2,2,2-trichloroethyloxy amide (—NH-Troc),
  • a carboxylic acid group may be protected as an ester for example, as: a C 1-7 alkyl ester (e.g., a methyl ester; a t-butyl ester); a C 1-7 haloalkyl ester (e.g., a C 1-7 -trihaloalkyl ester); a triC 1-7 alkylsilyl-C 1-7 alkyl ester; or a C 5-20 aryl-C 1-7 alkyl ester (e.g., a benzyl ester; a nitrobenzyl ester); or as an amide, for example, as a methyl amide.
  • a C 1-7 alkyl ester e.g., a methyl ester; a t-butyl ester
  • a C 1-7 haloalkyl ester e.g., a C 1-7 -trihaloalkyl ester
  • a thiol group may be protected as a thioether (—SR), for example, as: a benzyl thioether; an acetamidomethyl ether (—S—CH 2 NHC( ⁇ O)CH 3 ).
  • SR thioether
  • benzyl thioether an acetamidomethyl ether (—S—CH 2 NHC( ⁇ O)CH 3 ).
  • a process for the production of cyclic carbonates comprising contacting an epoxide with carbon dioxide in the presence of a dimeric aluminium(salen) catalyst of formula I.
  • This reaction has the advantage that it may be carried out at easily accessible temperatures of between 0 and 40° C. and pressures of between 0.5 and 2 atm. The reaction may even be carried out at temperatures of between 0 and 140° C. and pressures of between 0.5 and 5 atm. Preferably, the reaction temperature lies between 20 and 30° C. Yields of over 50% may be achieved with short reaction times of 3 to 24 hours, using commercially viable amounts of catalyst, that is, from 0.1 to 10 mol %, preferably 0.1 to 2.5 mol %. In some cases, yields of over 70% or over 90% may be achieved under these conditions.
  • the reaction may also be carried out in a flow reactor, wherein the reaction is continuous.
  • the carbon dioxide may be supplied heated, and in other embodiments, the reaction may be heated by a conventional or microwave system.
  • L is selected from a single bond and C 1-7 alkylene.
  • the aluminium(salen) catalyst of formula I is symmetrical, such that X 1 ⁇ X 2 , R 1 ⁇ R 13 , R 2 ⁇ R 14 , R 3 ⁇ R 15 , R 4 ⁇ R 16 , R 5 ⁇ R 9 , R 6 ⁇ R 10 , R 7 ⁇ R 11 , and R 8 ⁇ R 12 . More preferably R 1 , R 5 , R 9 , and R 13 are identical, R 2 , R 6 , R 10 and R 14 are identical, R 3 , R 7 , R 11 , and R 15 are identical, and R 4 , R 8 , R 12 and R 16 are identical.
  • Such catalysts are of formula Ia, which may be preferred.
  • the catalyst is bound to a solid support, then it will not be fully symmetrical.
  • X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from a C 2-5 alkylene chain, which is preferably unsubstituted, and a C 1-3 bisoxylakylene chain, which is preferably unsubstituted.
  • These groups can be represented as —(CH 2 ) n — or —O—(CH 2 ) p —O—, where n is 2, 3, 4, or 5 and p is 1, 2, or 3.
  • n is preferably 2 or 3 and p is preferably 1 or 2.
  • n is more preferably 2.
  • X 1 and X 2 are preferably selected from —(CH 2 ) n — (e.g. —C 2 H 4 —).
  • X 1 and X 2 independently represent C 5-7 arylene, which is more preferably C 6 arylene, and in particular, benzylene:
  • X 1 and X 2 independently represent a divalent group selected from C 5-7 arylene, C 5-7 cyclic alkylene and C 3-7 heterocyclylene, it may preferably be unsubstituted. If it is substituted, then the substituents may be selected from nitro, halo, C 1-4 alkyl, including substituted C 1-4 alkyl, (e.g. methyl, benzyl), C 1-4 alkoxy (e.g. methoxy) and hydroxy.
  • Y-Q is CR C1 ⁇ N, wherein R C1 is as defined above.
  • R C1 is preferably selected from H and C 1-4 alkyl. More preferably Y-Q is CH ⁇ N.
  • R C1 , R C2 and R N1 are H
  • R 3 , R 7 , R 11 and R 15 that is -L-A or L-A′. In some of these embodiments, if one of these groups is -L-A′, the other groups are -L-
  • the other groups may be -L-A M , where A M is a tertiary amine group, i.e. an amino group where the amino substituents are both not hydrogen, for example, C 1-7 alkyl (ethyl).
  • the L in all these groups may be the same.
  • R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , R 13 , R 14 , R 15 and R 16 which do not comprise -L-A or -L-A′ are independently selected from H, C 1-7 alkyl, ether and nitro.
  • the ether group is preferably a C 1-7 alkoxy group and more preferably C 1-4 alkoxy group, e.g. methoxy.
  • R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , R 13 , R 14 , and R 15 is C 1-7 alkyl, it is preferably butyl, more preferably tert-butyl.
  • L is preferably unsubstituted.
  • L may preferably be a C 1-3 alkylene group, e.g. methylene, ethylene, propylene, and in some embodiments is methylene.
  • A may preferably be selected from ammonium groups where R N1 , R N2 and R N3 are independently selected from C 1-7 alkyl groups and C 5-20 aryl groups, and where one or two of R N1 , R N2 and R N3 may also be H.
  • Ammonium groups of particular interest in the present invention include, but are not limited to, —NH(CH 3 ) 2 , —NH(CH(CH 3 ) 2 ) 2 , —N(CH 3 ) 3 , —N(CH 2 CH 3 ) 3 , and —NH 2 Ph.
  • A′ may preferably be selected from ammonium linking groups where R N1 and R N2 are independently selected from C 1-7 alkyl groups and C 5-20 aryl groups, where one or both of R N1 and R N2 may also be H and where R N4 is a C 1-7 alkylene group.
  • Ammonium linking groups of particular interest in the present invention include, but are not limited to, —NH(CH 3 )(CH 2 )—, —NH(CH(CH 3 ) 2 )(C(CH 3 ) 2 )—, —N(CH 3 ) 2 (CH 2 )—, —N(CH 2 CH 3 ) 2 (CH 2 CH 2 )—, and —NHPh(CH 2 )—.
  • Q may be —C( ⁇ O)—O— or —C( ⁇ O)—NH—.
  • X 1 and/or X 2 is substituted by -Q-L-A or -Q-L-A′, it is preferably a C 2 or C 3 alkylene group, more preferably a C 2 alkylene group, and may be of the formula:
  • X 1 or X 2 is a divalent C 3-7 heterocyclene group containing a ring atom which is a quaternary nitrogen atom, then it is preferably of the formula:
  • X 1 or X 2 is a divalent C 3-7 heterocyclene group containing a ring atom which is a quaternary nitrogen forming part of an ammonium linking group, then it is preferably of the formula:
  • the catalyst is of formula Ib:
  • Y-Q is CR C1 ⁇ N or CR C1 R C2 —NR N1 , where R C1 , R C2 and R N1 are independently selected from H, halo, optionally substituted C 1-20 alkyl, optionally substituted C 5-20 aryl, ether and nitro;
  • each of the substituents R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 8 , R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , R 12 , R 13 , R 14 , R 15 , and R 16 is independently selected from H, halo, optionally substituted C 1-20 alkyl (including CAr 3 , where Ar is a C 5-20 aryl group), optionally substituted C 5-20 aryl, optionally substituted C 3-20 heterocyclyl, ether and nitro;
  • X is either of the formula —(CH 2 ) n — or —O—(CH 2 ) p —O—, where n is 2, 3, 4, or 5 and p is 1, 2, or 3, or represents a divalent group selected from C 5-7 arylene, C 5-7 cyclic alkylene and C 3-7 heterocyclylene, which may be optionally substituted;
  • R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 8 , R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , R 12 , R 13 , R 14 , R 15 and R 16 is selected from L-A, where L is a single bond or a C 1-7 alkylene group and A is an ammonium group paired with a counterion selected from Cl, Br and I;
  • R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 8 , R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , R 12 , R 13 , R 14 , R 15 , and R 16 is L-A′, where L is as defined above and A′ is a ammonium linking group bound to a solid support and paired with a counterion selected from Cl, Br and I.
  • the reaction may be carried out under solvent-free conditions, depending on the epoxides used.
  • the epoxides or the cyclic carbonates may act as a solvent for the catalyst.
  • the inventors have found that propylene carbonate acts a suitable reaction solvent.
  • Some reactions may need the addition of a co-catalyst, Y ⁇ , and in particular MY, where M is a suitable cation, such as onium halides, which include, but are not limited to, R 4 NY, R 3 SY, R 4 PY and R 4 SbY, where each R is independently selected from optionally substituted C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-20 heterocyclyl and C 5-20 aryl groups and one R can be an acyl group, and simple halides, e.g. NaCl, KI.
  • M is a suitable cation, such as onium halides, which include, but are not limited to, R 4 NY, R 3 SY, R 4 PY and R 4 SbY, where each R is independently selected from optionally substituted C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-20 heterocyclyl and C 5-20 aryl groups and one R can be an acyl group, and simple halides, e.g. NaCl, KI.
  • the co-catalyst for this reaction is of the form R 4 NY, where each R is independently C 1-10 alkyl and Y is selected from I, Br and Cl. R is preferably selected from C 3-5 alkyl, and more preferably is butyl. Y is preferably Br. Therefore, a particularly preferred co-catalyst is Bu 4 NBr (TBAB). The amount of co-catalyst is preferably less than 2.5%, more preferably less than 1.0 mol % and most preferably less than 0.5 mol %. In some embodiments, no separate co-catalyst is present.
  • the catalyst of formula I comprises one or more ammonium group paired with a counterion
  • it may be synthesised from a precursor comprising the corresponding ammonia groups by reaction with a organic halide (i.e. a C 1-7 alkyl, C 3-20 heterocyclyl or C 5-20 aryl halide), or an organic group with another leaving group (e.g. tosylate).
  • a organic halide i.e. a C 1-7 alkyl, C 3-20 heterocyclyl or C 5-20 aryl halide
  • an organic group with another leaving group e.g. tosylate
  • the catalyst of formula I comprises an ammonium linking group bound to a solid support
  • it may be synthesised from a precursor catalyst comprising a corresponding ammonia group by reaction with a halide derived solid support or a solid support derivatized with another leaving group (e.g. tosylate).
  • IR spectra of liquids or of solids dissolved in a solvent were recorded between NaCl plates on a PE Spectrum 1 spectrometer.
  • IR spectra of pure solids were recorded on a Nicolet380 FTIR spectrometer fitted with a ‘Smart orbit’ attachment.
  • EI and CI spectra were recorded on a Varian Saturn 2200 GC-mass spectrometer.
  • Low and high resolution electrospray spectra (ESI) were recorded on a Waters LCT Premier mass spectrometer.
  • Ligands 17-19 were converted to complexes 22-24 in an analogous manner to step (f) above.
  • the bis-ammonium salt (20) was synthesised from the salen ligand (17) in an analogous manner to step (a) above. ⁇ max 3383, 2648 and 1647 cm ⁇ 1 .
  • Cardice pellets were added to the conical flask which was fitted with a rubber stopper pierced by a deflated balloon. The reaction was stirred for the required length of time, then filtered to remove the supported catalyst which was washed thoroughly with CH 2 Cl 2 (20 mL). The filtrate and washings were combined and evaporated in vacuo and the residue analysed by 1 H NMR spectroscopy to determine the conversion of styrene oxide to styrene carbonate. The immobilized catalyst could be returned to the sample vial and reused, as shown with the repeated runs below.
  • propylene carbonate as a solvent is compatible with the catalytic system.
  • Clays (0.5 g) were activated at 120° C. for three days prior to use. After the activation, the clay (0.5 g) was added to a solution of aluminium complex (21) (0.140 g, 0.08 mmol) in DMF (30 mL) and refluxed for 30 hours. Subsequently, the mixture was filtered and washed with DMF (4 ⁇ 20 mL), EtOAc (4 ⁇ 20 mL) and dichloromethane (3 ⁇ 20 mL) to yield a powder which was dried under vacuum for 24 hours.
  • Styrene oxide (0.2 g, 1.66 mmol) and catalyst (30-32) (0.5 g, 0.1 mmol/g support) in propylene carbonate (0.84 g) were placed in a sample vial fitted with a magnetic stirrer bar and placed in a large conical flask.
  • the conical flask was placed in an oil bath thermostatted at 26° C.
  • Cardice pellets were added to the conical flask which was fitted with a rubber stopper pierced by a deflated balloon.
  • the contents of the reaction vial were stirred for 24 hours during which time the balloon inflated as the cardice pellets evaporated.
  • the reaction was filtered to remove supported catalyst and the solution analysed by GC to determine the conversion of styrene oxide into styrene carbonate.
  • Modified SiO 2 (0.1 g) was added to a solution of aluminium complex (22) (0.175 g, 0.15 mmol) in CH 3 CN (40 mL) and the mixture was refluxed overnight. Then, the mixture was filtered and washed with EtOAc (4 ⁇ 50 mL) to give silica supported complex (33) as a yellow powder. ⁇ max 3500, 1649 and 1070 cm ⁇ 1 .
  • Tetrabutylammonium bromide (193 mg, 6 mmol) was added to a suspension of supported complex (33) (0.220 g, 1 mmol) in CH 3 CN (40 mL) and the resulting mixture was refluxed overnight. Then, the mixture was filtered and washed with EtOAc (4 ⁇ 50 mL) to give silica supported complex (34) as a yellow powder. ⁇ max 3427, 1628 and 1070 cm ⁇ 1 .
  • Benzyl bromide (0.09 mL, 0.72 mmol) was added to a suspension of supported catalyst (34) (0.240 g, 1 mmol) in CH 3 CN (40 mL) and the resulting mixture was refluxed overnight. Subsequently, the mixture was filtered and washed with EtOAc (4 ⁇ 50 mL) to give silica supported complex (35) as a yellow powder. ⁇ max 3410, 1633 and 1078 cm ⁇ 1 .
  • Modified Al pillared clay (0.1 g) was added to a solution of aluminium complex (22) (0.175 g, 0.15 mmol) in CH 3 CN (40 mL) and the mixture was then refluxed overnight. Subsequently, the mixture was filtered and washed with EtOAc (4 ⁇ 50 mL) and dichloromethane (3 ⁇ 50 mL) to give clay supported complex (36) as a yellow powder. ⁇ max 3410, 1627 and 1031 cm ⁇ 1 .
  • Styrene oxide (0.2 g, 1.66 mmol) and catalyst (35) or (37) (0.083 g, 0.5 mmol/g support) were placed in a sample vial fitted with a magnetic stirrer bar and placed in a large conical flask.
  • the conical flask was placed in an oil bath thermostatted at 26° C.
  • Cardice pellets were added to the conical flask which was fitted with a rubber stopper pierced by a deflated balloon.
  • the contents of the reaction vial were stirred for 24 hours during which time the balloon inflated as the cardice pellets evaporated.
  • the reaction was filtered to remove supported catalyst and the solution analysed by GC to determine the conversion of styrene oxide into styrene carbonate.
  • Tetrabutylammonium bromide (0.20 g, 0.6 mmol) and benzyl bromide (0.13 g, 1 mmol) were added to a suspension of supported aluminium complex (38) (200 mg, 0.15 mmol) in CH 3 CN (30 mL) and the mixture was refluxed overnight. Then, the mixture was washed with EtOAc (4 ⁇ 50 mL) to leave MCM-41 supported complex (39) as a yellow powder (0.22 g, 98%). ⁇ max 3452, 1634, 1052 and 947 cm ⁇ 1 .
  • ICPMS (5 mg of supported catalyst digested with 5 mL of 1M HCl) gave an aluminium concentration of 22.55 ppm, corresponding to a catalyst loading of 0.47 mmol per gram of support.
  • Catalyst (39) (0.0503 mmol) and propylene carbonate (1.0 g) were added to a reaction vial to which pre-cooled ethylene oxide (2.01 mmol) was added.
  • the reaction vial was fitted with a magnetic stirrer and placed inside a stainless steel reaction vessel along with sufficient cardice pellets to pressurise the system to approximately 6 atmospheres.
  • the stainless steel reactor was sealed and the reaction left to stir for 24 hours after which the reaction mixture was taken up in ethyl acetate and filtered to remove the catalyst. The ethyl acetate was evaporated under reduced pressure and the weight of the residue determined.
  • the relative composition of propylene and ethylene carbonates was determined by GC/MS and used to calculate that a 93% conversion of ethylene oxide to ethylene carbonate had been achieved.
  • Tetrabutylammonium bromide (0.20 g, 0.6 mmol) and benzylbromide (0.13 g, 1 mmol) were added to a suspension of supported aluminium complex (40) in CH 3 CN (30 mL) and the mixture refluxed overnight. Then, the mixture was washed with EtOAc (4 ⁇ 50 mL) to leave solgel supported catalyst (41) as a yellow powder (0.52 g, 96%). ⁇ max 3562, 1629 and 1052 cm ⁇ 1 .
  • ICPMS (5 mg of supported catalyst digested with 10 mL of 1M HCl) gave an aluminium concentration of 13.65 ppm, corresponding to a catalyst loading of 0.51 mmol per gram of support.
  • the flow reactor is illustrated in FIG. 1 .
  • Ethylene oxide was collected from a commercially supplied cylinder as a liquid in a cooled beaker at ⁇ 78° C. and placed, with a magnetic stirrer bar, inside a 360 mL pre-cooled ( ⁇ 10 to ⁇ 40° C.) stainless steel pressure vessel (3). The vessel was then sealed. Nitrogen and carbon dioxide gases were supplied from cylinders via mass flow controller units (1) and their respective lines merged to the inlet of the pressure vessel (see diagram). All tubing used in the system was composed of stainless steel with an internal diameter of approximately 1.6 mm.
  • the temperature of the pressure vessel (3) was controlled by a cryostatically cooled bath (2) to provide the required rate of evaporation of ethylene oxide at a particular flow rate of N 2 and CO 2 .
  • the vessel outlet line was then connected to a stainless steel tubular reactor (4) (15 cm ⁇ 10 mm) packed with a solid supported catalyst and plugged at both ends with a small volume of cotton.
  • the tubular reactor (4) was either kept at ambient temperature or immersed in a thermostatted water bath.
  • the mixture of CO 2 , ethylene oxide and N 2 was passed through the reactor column at a steady flow rate.
  • the outlet of the reactor (4) was connected to a sealed glass vial (5) via a needle to collect any non-gaseous products.
  • the outlet from the product receptacle passed to a GC system (6) which was used to determine the concentrations of CO 2 , N 2 and ethylene oxide in the effluent gas stream.
  • the results obtained with both silica and polystyrene supported catalysts are given in the following table.

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