US20080057034A1

US20080057034A1 - Attenuated FNR Deficient Enterobacteria

Info

Publication number: US20080057034A1
Application number: US11/780,358
Authority: US
Inventors: Hosni Hassan; Ryan Fink; Matthew Evans
Original assignee: North Carolina State University
Current assignee: North Carolina State University
Priority date: 2006-07-19
Filing date: 2007-07-19
Publication date: 2008-03-06
Also published as: WO2008108805A2; WO2008108805A3; US8435506B2; US20100255036A1; US20120128718A1; US8101168B2

Abstract

The invention provides an attenuated enterobacterium comprising an attenuating mutation in the fnr gene, and optionally further comprising a heterologous nucleic acid encoding a foreign antigen. Also provided are pharmaceutical formulations comprising the attenuated enterobacteria of the invention. Further disclosed are methods of inducing an immune response in a subject by administration of an immunogenically effective amount of an attenuated enterobacterium or pharmaceutical formulation of the invention.

Description

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/831,821, filed Jul. 19, 2006, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to attenuated Fumarate-Nitrate Reductase (FNR) enterobacteria strains. In particular, this invention relates to attenuated FNR enterobacteria strains and methods of using the same to induce an immune response.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium is a gram-negative facultative intracellular pathogen. Serovar Typhimurium infections usually result from ingestion of contaminated food or water. The organism generally targets and colonizes the intestinal epithelium of the host and causes gastroenteritis (i.e., salmonellosis). During a Salmonella infection, the growth phase and growth conditions of the organism are important in attachment, invasion, and the regulation of many of the virulence genes. Cells grown under limited oxygen concentrations are more invasive and adhere better to mammalian cells than do aerobically grown or stationary-phase cells. Salmonella invasion genes have been identified and localized. During infection, serovar Typhimurium must adapt to changes in [O₂] encountered in the gastrointestinal tract of the host. In Escherichia coli, transitions from aerobic to anaerobic environments or vice versa, involve changes in a large number of genes. However, upon sudden reappearance of oxygen, these cellular processes must be reversed in a precise and orderly fashion to ensure the safe transition to the oxygenated environment. This complex regulatory system has been extensively studied in E. coli, where the DNA-binding protein FNR encoded by fnr, senses changes in [O₂] and controls the expression of the different genes either alone or in cooperation with other regulators, e.g., ArcA.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is based, in part, on the inventors' discovery that enterobacteria comprising an attenuating mutation in the fnr (Fumarate-Nitrate Reductase) gene have an avirulent (i.e., highly attenuated) phenotype. Thus, the present invention provides attenuated enterobacteria and methods of using the same as attenuated immunogenic compositions, attenuated vaccines and/or as attenuated vaccine vectors to induce an immune response against a heterologous antigen in a subject.
Accordingly, a first aspect of the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising an attenuated enterobacterium comprising an attenuating mutation (e.g., deletion) in the fnr gene in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
A further aspect of the invention provides an attenuated enterobacterium comprising an attenuating mutation (e.g., a deletion) in the fnr gene and, optionally, further comprising a heterologous nucleic acid sequence encoding a foreign antigen. In particular embodiments, the attenuated enterobacterium is present in a pharmaceutical composition in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
A further aspect of the present invention is a method of inducing an immune response in a subject comprising administering to the subject an immunogenically effective amount of an attenuated enterobacterium comprising an attenuating mutation (e.g., a deletion) in the fnr gene. In embodiments of the invention, the attenuated enterobacterium is provided in a pharmaceutical composition further comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In further embodiments of the invention, the attenuated enterobacterium comprises a heterologous nucleic acid encoding a foreign antigen.
The invention further provides for the use of an attenuated enterobacterium or pharmaceutical composition of the invention to induce an immune response in a subject.
These and other aspects of the invention are set forth in more detail in the following description of the invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows the location of the tnpA insertion (between bp 106 and 107) in the fnr gene. WT fnr sequences are in bold, and the sequences of the beginning and ending junctions of the tnpA insert are in italics. Arrows indicate the direction of transcription. IGS, intergenic spacer region. (Complete DNA sequences [i.e., ogt, tnpA/fnr junctions, and ydaA] are available at GenBank accession number AH015911.)
FIG. 2 shows a logo graph of the information matrix obtained from the consensus alignment of FNR motif sequences for serovar Typhimurium (derived from the corresponding FNR-regulated genes in E. coli). The total height of each column of characters represents the amount of information for that specific position, and the height of each character represents the frequency of each nucleotide.
FIG. 3 shows the correlation between the microarray and qRT-PCR data for 19 selected genes. The ratios of changes in gene expression, from the microarray and qRT-PCR experiments, for the FNR mutant relative to the WT were log₂transformed and linearly correlated.
FIG. 4 shows a scheme representing the structural organization of the major genes involved in virulence/SPI-1 (A), ethanolamine utilization (B), and flagellar biosynthesis and motility/swarming (C to E). The names of genes are listed to the right of the arrows, an asterisk next to the gene indicates the presence of at least one FNR motif in the 5′ region, and the numbers to the left of the arrows indicate the ratio of gene expression in the fnr mutant relative to that in the WT.
FIG. 5 shows a comparison of the fnr mutant and the WT strain for virulence in 6- to 8-week-old C57BL/6 mice. (A) Groups of 10 mice were inoculated p.o. with 5×10⁶and 5×10⁷CFU/mouse. (B) Groups of five mice were challenged i.p. with 250 CFU/mouse, as described. Percent survival is the number of mice surviving relative to the number of mice challenged at time zero.
FIG. 6 shows a comparison of the WT, the fnr mutant, and the mutant strain harboring pfnr for survival inside peritoneal macrophages from C57BL/6 mice. The macrophages were harvested and treated as described. (A) Comparison between the fnr mutant and the WT strain. The number of viable cells found inside the macrophages, at time zero, following the removal of extracellular bacteria by washing/gentamicin treatment is defined as 100% survival. (B) Comparison between the WT, the fnr mutant, and the pfnr-complemented mutant. The number of viable cells found inside macrophages at 20 h is expressed as percent survival relative to that found inside macrophages at 2 h.
FIG. 7 shows the virulence of the WT and the fnr mutant in C57BL/6 mice and congenic gp91phox^−/− mice and survival of the bacteria inside peritoneal macrophages. The mice were challenged i.p. with 250 CFU/mouse, as described. (A) C57BL/6 and gp91phox^−/− mice treated with the WT strain. (B) C57BL/6 and gp91phox^−/− mice treated with the fnr mutant. (C) Survival of the WT and the fnr mutant inside macrophages from C57BL/6 and gp91phox^−/− mice. The number of viable cells at 20 h is expressed as percent survival relative to that found inside the macrophages at time zero.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is explained in greater detail below. This description is not intended to be a detailed catalog of all the different ways in which the invention may be implemented, or all the features that may be added to the instant invention. For example, features illustrated with respect to one embodiment may be incorporated into other embodiments, and features illustrated with respect to a particular embodiment may be deleted from that embodiment. In addition, numerous variations and additions to the various embodiments suggested herein will be apparent to those skilled in the art in light of the instant disclosure, which do not depart from the instant invention. Hence, the following specification is intended to illustrate some particular embodiments of the invention, and not to exhaustively specify all permutations, combinations, and variations thereof.
All publications, patents, and patent publications cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entireties for the teachings relevant to the sentence and/or paragraph in which the citation is presented.
As used herein, “a,” “an” or “the” can mean one or more than one. For example, “a” mutation can mean a single mutation or a multiplicity of mutations.
As used herein, “and/or” refers to and encompasses any and all possible combinations of one or more of the associated listed items, as well as the lack of combinations when interpreted in the alternative (“or”).
FNR (Fumarate-Nitrate Reductase) is a DNA-binding regulator protein expressed by all enterobacteria including Salmonella spp., Escherichia spp., and Shigella spp. The fnr gene was previously known as oxrA in Salmonella spp. The present inventors have identified FNR as a global regulatory protein for the expression of virulent genes in enterobacteria. An FNR deleted (Δfnr) strain of a known virulent strain of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium was shown to be non-motile, lacking flagella, and having an avirulent phenotype. Thus, the present invention provides FNR deficient (e.g., Δfnr or fnr mutants) strains of enterobacteria that can be used to study the fnr gene, its role in virulence in these organisms, and can further be used as attenuated immunogenic compositions, attenuated vaccines (e.g., live attenuated vaccines) and/or attenuated vaccine vectors.
Enterobacteria are known in the art and are generally pathogens that can infect the gastrointestinal tract of avians and/or mammals. The present invention can be practiced with any suitable enterobacterium in the order Enterobacteriales and optionally in the family Enterobacteriaceae that encodes FNR, including but not limited to bacteria classified in the following genera: Alishewanella, Alterococcus, Aquamonas, Aranicola, Arsenophonus, Azotivirga, Blochmannia, Brenneria, Buchnera, Budvicia, Buttiauxella, Candidatus, Cedecea, Citrobacter, Dickeya, Edwardsiella, Enterobacter, Erwinia (e.g., E. amylovora), Escherichia, Ewingella, Grimontella, Hafnia, Klebsiella (e.g., K. pneumoniae), Kuyvera, Leclercia, Leminorella, Moellerella, Morganella, Obesumbacterium, Pantoea, Pectobacterium, Candidatus Phlomobacter, Photohabdus, Plesiomonas (e.g., P. shigelloides), Pragia, Proteus (e.g., P. vulgaris), Providencia, Rahnella, Raoultella, Salmonella, Samsonia, Serratia (e.g., S. marcenscens), Shigella, Sodalis, Tatumella, Travulsiella, Wigglesworthia, Xenorhabdus, Yersinia (e.g., Y. pestis), and Yokenella.
In particular embodiments, the enterobacterium is a Salmonella spp., an Escherichia spp., or a Shigella spp.
Further, the enterobacterium can optionally be a pathogenic enterobacterium. In particular embodiments, the enterobacterium from which the FNR deficient strain is derived is a pathogenic (e.g., virulent) bacterium as that term is understood in the art, where the attenuating fnr mutation results in a reduction in the pathogenicity. In representative embodiments, the FNR deficient strain is highly attenuated so as to be avirulent (e.g., induces no or insignificant levels of pathogenicity).
The term “pathogenic” is understood in the art, for example, as causing pathogenicity such as morbidity and/or mortality in a subject or population of subjects.
The term “attenuating” with respect to pathogenic microorganisms is understood in the art, for example, as a reduction in pathogenicity (including no detectable pathogenicity) produced in the subject as a result of administration of the FNR deficient enterobacterium strain as compared with the level of pathogenicity produced if an enterobacterium with a fully functional fnr gene (e.g., the wild-type strain) were administered.
Methods of assessing pathogenicity of enterobacteria, and attenuation thereof, are known in the art (e.g., morbidity and/or mortality following challenge in a suitable animal model such as mice or survival in cultured macrophages).
Suitable Salmonella species within the scope of the present invention include but are not limited to S. bongori and S. enterica as well as S. enterica subspecies (e.g., enterica, salamae, arizonae, diarizonae, houtenae and indica). Numerous serovars of S. bongori and S. enterica are known and are within the scope of the present invention. Exemplary S. enterica serovars include Typhimurium, Typhi and Enteritidis.
The present invention can further be practiced with any species of Escherichia including but not limited to E. adecarboxylata, E. albertii, E. blattae, E. coli (including toxigenic strains such as E. coli O157:H7), E. fergusonii, E. hermannii, and E. vulneris.
Suitable species of Shigella include without limitation species in Serogroup A (e.g., S. dysenteriae and serotypes thereof), species in Serogroup B (e.g., S. flexneri and serotypes thereof), species in Serogroup C (e.g., S. boydii and serotypes thereof), and species in Serogroup D (e.g., S. sonnei and serotypes thereof).
The genomic sequences of numerous enterobacteria are known in the art. See, e.g., NCBI Accession No. NC_—004337 (Shigella flexneri 2a str. 301); NCBI Accession No. NC_—007613 (Shigella boydii Sb227); NCBI Accession No. AP009048 (E. coli W3110); NCBI Accession No. BA000007 (E. coli O157:H7 str. Sakai); NCBI Accession No. AE009952 (Y. pestis KIM); NCBI Accession No. NC_—003197 (S. typhimurium LT2); and NCBI Accession No. NC_—003198 (S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi str. CT18).
Likewise, the nucleic acid and amino acid sequences of the fnr gene from various enterobacteria are known in the art.
The attenuated enterobacteria of the present invention comprise an attenuating mutation in the fnr gene. In representative embodiments, the mutation is an attenuating deletion mutation (including truncations) that results in attenuation of the pathogenicity of the bacterium. Other mutations include without limitation attenuating insertions, substitutions and/or frame-shift mutations that result in attenuation of the pathogenicity of the bacterium. In embodiments of the invention, the mutation is a non-polar alteration in the fnr gene.
Deletion and insertion mutations can be any deletion/insertion mutation in the fnr gene that results in attenuation of the pathogenicity of the bacterium. In representative embodiments, the alteration is a deletion or an insertion of at least about 9, 30, 50, 75, 90, 120, 150, 180, 240, 300, 450 or more consecutive nucleotides in the fnr gene that results in attenuation of the pathogenicity of the bacterium. Optionally, essentially all (e.g., at least about 95%, 97%, 98% or more) or all of the fnr coding sequence is deleted. In other embodiments, essentially all or all of the fnr gene, including regulatory elements, is deleted. In particular embodiments, the deletion can extend beyond the fnr gene. Generally, however, the deletion does not render genes essential for growth, multiplication and/or survival non-functional. In particular embodiments, the deletion does not extend into any genes essential for growth, multiplication and/or survival. In embodiments of the invention, the deletion does not extend to genes that are 5′ and/or 3′ of the fnr coding region or the fnr gene.
One FNR deficient strain of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium has been constructed by the inventors and is shown in the Examples.
The FNR deficient enterobacterium strains of the invention can further comprise other mutations, including other attenuating mutations.
Generally, the FNR deficient enterobacterium strains will retain other appropriate genomic sequences to be able to grow, multiply and survive (e.g., in the gut of a host). Thus, the fnr mutations of the invention exclude lethal mutations that unduly inhibit the survival of the organism.
In embodiments of the invention, the FNR mutation results in at least about a 25%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98% or more reduction in FNR mRNA, protein and/or activity. Methods of assessing levels of mRNA and proteins levels and FNR activity are known in the art.
The fnr mutation can be combined with any other mutation known in the art, including other attenuating mutations. For example, the fnr mutant enterobacterium can also comprise an arcA mutation. The ArcA protein cooperates with FNR for controlling the transitions from aerobic/anaerobic conditions and vice versa.
The attenuated enterobacteria of the present invention can be used as an attenuated immunogenic compositions or attenuated vaccine against enterobacteria (e.g., a live attenuated vaccine). Enterobacteria are described above. In embodiments of the invention, the enterobacterium is a pathogenic enterobacterium. For example, in particular embodiments, the invention provides live immunogenic compositions or live attenuated vaccines against Salmonella, Shigella or Escherichia. The attenuated enterobacterium vaccine can be used to induce an immune response against one species or against multiple closely related species/genera of enterobacteria (e.g., that cross-react with antibodies produced in response to administration of the attenuated enterobacterium).
Further, the attenuated FNR deficient enterobacterium strains of the invention can be used as vectors, e.g., to deliver an antigen(s) that is heterologous (e.g., foreign) to the enterobacterium vector (including any plasmids carried by the enterobacterium) to induce an immune response against other organisms (e.g., pathogenic organisms). In one embodiment, a heterologous nucleic acid sequence encoding the foreign antigen(s) is incorporated into the genomic DNA of the enterobacterium (e.g., inserted into or in place of a deleted fnr gene). In other embodiments, the heterologous nucleic acid sequence encoding the foreign antigen is incorporated into a plasmid that is carried by an attenuated FNR deficient host (e.g., a Δfnr host). Plasmids that are compatible with the various enterobacteria are known in the art.
The attenuated FNR deficient strains can further be used as vectors to deliver therapeutic proteins and untranslated RNAs (e.g., siRNA, shRNA, antisense RNA).
Methods of expressing foreign antigens in enterobacteria are known to those skilled in the art. For example, the foreign antigen can be expressed as part of a fusion with one of the structural proteins of the bacterial host (e.g., expressed on the surface of the bacterium) such as a flagellin protein (see, e.g., Chauhan et al., (2005) Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 276:1-6) or a membrane protein as known in the art. See also, Chinchilla et al., (2007) Infection Immun. 75: 3769. In other embodiments, the foreign antigen is not expressed as a fusion with a host structural protein. According to this embodiment, the heterologous nucleic acid encoding the foreign antigen can optionally be operably associated with a leader sequence directing secretion of the foreign antigen from the bacterial cell.
The heterologous nucleic acid sequence encoding the foreign antigen can be operatively associated with any suitable promoter or other regulatory sequence. The promoter or regulatory sequence can be native or foreign to the host, can be native or foreign to the heterologous nucleic acid, and can further be partially or completely synthetic.
The codon usage of the heterologous nucleic acid sequence can be optimized for expression in the enterobacterium using methods known to those skilled in the art (see, e.g., Chinchilla et al., (2007) Infection Immun. 75: 3769.
The foreign antigen can be any suitable antigen known in the art, and can further be from a bacterial, yeast, fungal, protozoan or viral source. Suitable antigens include, but are not limited to antigens from pathogenic infectious agents.
The antigen can be an antigen from a pathogenic microorganism, which includes but is not limited to, Rickettsia, Chlamydia, Mycobacteria, Clostridia, Corynebacteria, Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, Legionella, Shigella, Salmonella, pathogenic Escherichia coli species, Bordatella, Neisseria, Treponema, Bacillus, Haemophilus, Moraxella, Vibrio, Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., Campylobacter spp., Borrelia spp., Leptospira spp., Erlichia spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Helicobacter spp., and any other pathogenic microorganism now known or later identified (see, e.g., Microbiology, Davis et al, Eds., 4^thed., Lippincott, New York, 1990, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference for the teachings of pathogenic microorganisms).
Specific examples of microorganisms from which the antigen can be obtained include, but are not limited to, Helicobacter pylori, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus viridans, Enterococcus faecalis, Neisseria meningitidis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Treponema pallidum, Bacillus anthracis, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholera, Pasteurella pestis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium difficile, Clostridium tetani, Clostridium botulinum, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Borrelia burgdorferi, Haemophilus ducreyi, Corynebacterium diphtheria, Bordetella pertussis, Bordetella parapertussis, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Haemophilus influenza, and enterotoxic Escherichia coli.
The antigen can further be an antigen from a pathogenic protozoa, including, but not limited to, Plasmodium spp. (e.g., malaria antigens), Babeosis spp., Schistosoma spp., Trypanosoma spp., Pneumocystis carnii, Toxoplasma spp., Leishmania spp., and any other protozoan pathogen now known or later identified.
The antigen can also be an antigen from pathogenic yeast and fungi, including, but not limited to, Aspergillus spp., Candida spp., Cryptococcus spp., Histoplasma spp., Coccidioides spp., and any other pathogenic fungus now known or later identified.
Suitable antigens can include, but are not limited to, viral antigens such as antigens including but not limited to human hepatitis C virus (HCV) antigens and influenza antigens.
Other specific examples of various antigens include, but are not limited to, the B1 protein of hepatitis C virus (Bruna-Romero et al. (1997) Hepatology 25: 470-477), amino acids 252-260 of the circumsporozoite protein of Plasmodium berghei [Allsopp et al. (1996) Eur. J. Immunol. 26: 1951-1958], the influenza A virus nucleoprotein [e.g., residues 366-374; Nomura et al. (1996) J. Immunol. Methods 193: 4149], the listeriolysin O protein of Listeria monocytogenes [residues 91-99; An et al. (1996) Infect. Immun. 64: 1685-1693 ], P. falciparum antigens (causing malaria, e.g., tCSP), hepatitis B surface antigen [Gilbert et al. (1997) Nature Biotech. 15: 1280-1283], and E coli O157.H1.
The term “antigen” as used herein includes toxins such as the neurotoxin tetanospasmin produced by Clostridium tetani and the toxin produced by E. coli O157:H7.
In particular embodiments, the attenuated enterobacteria of the invention express a foreign antigen(s) and can be used to induce an immune response against both the enterobacterium and the organism(s) from which the foreign antigen(s) is derived and, optionally, other species/genera closely related to either of the foregoing (e.g., that cross-react with antibodies produced in response to administration of the attenuated enterobacterium).
There is no particular size limitation to the heterologous nucleic acid encoding the foreign antigen. When incorporated into the genomic DNA, the heterologous nucleic acid will generally be at least about 30, 50, 75, 100, 150 or 200 nucleotides in length and/or less than about 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 or 3 kilobases in length. When carried by a plasmid, the heterologous nucleic acid can generally be longer, e.g., at least about 30, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 500 or 1000 nucleotides in length and/or less than about 5, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 or 20 kilobases in length.
In representative embodiments, the FNR deficient enterobacterium is a Δfnr mutant, which advantageously reduces the probability of reversion to the wild-type pathogenic phenotype. For example, most current live attenuated vaccine strains against typhoid are auxotrophs for some nutrients, which are likely less stable than the deletion mutants.
The present invention can be used for therapeutic/prophylactic and non-therapeutic/prophylactic purposes. For example, the present invention provides FNR deficient (e.g., Δfnr) enterobacteria strains that can be used to study the fnr gene, its role in virulence in these organisms, and as attenuated immunogenic compositions, attenuated vaccines (e.g., live attenuated vaccines) and attenuated vaccine vectors (e.g., live attenuated vaccine vectors).
With respect to uses as an attenuated vaccine or vaccine vector, the present invention finds use in both veterinary and medical applications. Suitable subjects include avians, mammals and fish, with mammals being preferred. The term “avian” as used herein includes, but is not limited to, chickens, ducks, geese, quail, turkeys and pheasants. The term “mammal” as used herein includes, but is not limited to, primates (e.g., simians and humans), bovines, ovines, caprines, porcines, equines, felines, canines, lagomorphs, rodents (e.g., rats and mice), etc. Human subjects include fetal, neonatal, infant, juvenile and adult subjects.
The invention can be used in a therapeutic and/or prophylactic manner. For example, in one embodiment, to protect against an infectious disease, subjects may be vaccinated prior to exposure, e.g., as neonates or adolescents. Adults that have not previously been exposed to the disease may also be vaccinated.
In particular embodiments, the present invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising a FNR deficient (e.g., Δfnr) strain enterobacterium (optionally, a live FNR deficient enterobacterium) in a pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier, which can also include other medicinal agents, pharmaceutical agents, carriers, adjuvants, diluents, etc. For injection, the carrier is typically a liquid. For other methods of administration, the carrier may be either solid or liquid, such as sterile, pyrogen-free water or sterile pyrogen-free phosphate-buffered saline solution. For inhalation administration, the carrier will be respirable, and is optionally in solid or liquid particulate form. Formulation of pharmaceutical compositions is well known in the pharmaceutical arts [see, e.g., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 15th Edition, Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa. (1975)].
By “pharmaceutically acceptable” it is meant a material that is not biologically or otherwise undesirable, e.g., the material may be administered to a subject without causing undesirable biological effects.
The FNR deficient strains of the invention can be administered to elicit an immune response. Typically, immunological compositions of the present invention comprise an immunogenically effective amount of the FNR deficient strain enterobacterium as disclosed herein, optionally in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
An “immunogenically effective amount” is an amount that is sufficient to induce an immune response in the subject to which the composition is administered. Nonlimiting examples of dosages include about 10⁴to 10⁹colony forming units (cfu), about 10⁵to 10⁸cfu or about 10⁶to 10⁷cfu. Optionally, one or more booster dosages (e.g., about 10³to 10⁸cfu or 10⁴to 10⁵cfu) can be administered.
The invention also encompasses methods of producing an immune response in a subject, the method comprising: administering a FNR deficient (e.g., Δfnr) enterobacterium strain of the invention or a pharmaceutical formulation containing the same to a subject in an immunogenically effective amount so that an immune response is produced in the subject.
The terms “vaccination” or “immunization” are well-understood in the art. For example, the terms vaccination or immunization can be understood to be a process that increases a subject's immune reaction to antigen and thereby enhance the ability to resist and/or overcome infection.
Any suitable method of producing an immune response (e.g., immunization) known in the art can be employed in carrying out the present invention, as long as an active immune response (preferably, a protective immune response) is elicited.
In representative embodiments, less pathogenicity (including no detectable pathogenicity) is produced in the subject as a result of administration of the FNR deficient enterobacterium strain as compared with pathogenicity produced if an enterobacterium with a fully functional fnr gene (e.g., the wild-type strain) were administered (e.g., at least about a 25%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98% or more reduction in pathogenicity).
Vaccines can be given as a single dose schedule or in a multiple dose schedule. A multiple dose schedule is one in which a primary course of administration may consist of about 1 to 10 separate doses, followed by other doses (i.e., booster doses) given at subsequent time intervals to maintain and/or reinforce the immune response, for example, at about 1 to 4 months for a second dose, and if needed, a subsequent dose(s) after another several months or year. The dosage regimen will also, at least in part, be determined by the need of the individual and be dependent upon the judgment of the medical or veterinary practitioner.
An “active immune response” or “active immunity” is characterized by “participation of host tissues and cells after an encounter with the immunogen. It involves differentiation and proliferation of immunocompetent cells in lymphoreticular tissues, which lead to synthesis of antibody or the development of cell-mediated reactivity, or both.” Herbert B. Herscowitz, Immunophysiology: Cell Function and Cellular Interactions in Antibody Formation, in IMMUNOLOGY: BASIC PROCESSES 117 (Joseph A. Bellanti ed., 1985). Alternatively stated, an active immune response is mounted by the host after exposure to immunogen by infection or by vaccination. Active immunity can be contrasted with passive immunity, which is acquired through the “transfer of preformed substances (antibody, transfer factor, thymic graft, interleukin-2) from an actively immunized host to a non-immune host.” Id.
A “protective” immune response or “protective” immunity as used herein indicates that the immune response confers some benefit to the subject in that it prevents or reduces the incidence of disease, the progression of the disease and/or the symptoms of the disease. Alternatively, a protective immune response or protective immunity may be useful in the treatment of disease including infectious disease. The protective effects may be complete or partial, as long as the benefits of the treatment outweigh any disadvantages thereof.
Administration of the attenuated enterobacteria and compositions of the invention can be by any means known in the art, including oral, rectal, topical, buccal (e.g., sub-lingual), vaginal, intra-ocular, parenteral (e.g., subcutaneous, intramuscular including skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, diaphragm muscle and smooth muscle, intradermal, intravenous, intraperitoneal), topical (e.g., mucosal surfaces including airway surfaces), intranasal, transmucosal, intratracheal, transdermal, intraventricular, intraarticular, intrathecal and inhalation administration.
The most suitable route in any given case will depend on the nature and severity of the condition being treated, the FNR deficient strain enterobacterium, and the composition being administered.
The FNR deficient enterobacterium strain can be formulated for administration in a pharmaceutical carrier in accordance with known techniques. See, e.g., Remington, The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (9th Ed. 1995). In the manufacture of a pharmaceutical formulation according to the invention, the FNR deficient enterobacterium strain is typically admixed with, inter alia, an acceptable carrier. The carrier can be a solid or a liquid, or both, and is optionally formulated as a unit-dose formulation, which can be prepared by any of the well-known techniques of pharmacy.
For injection, the carrier is typically a liquid, such as sterile pyrogen-free water, pyrogen-free phosphate-buffered saline solution, bacteriostatic water, or Cremophor EL[R] (BASF, Parsippany, N.J.). For other methods of administration, the carrier can be either solid or liquid.
For oral administration, the FNR deficient enterobacterium strain can be administered in solid dosage forms, such as capsules, tablets, and powders, or in liquid dosage forms, such as elixirs, syrups, and suspensions. The FNR deficient strain enterobacterium can be encapsulated in gelatin capsules together with inactive ingredients and powdered carriers, such as glucose, lactose, sucrose, mannitol, starch, cellulose or cellulose derivatives, magnesium stearate, stearic acid, sodium saccharin, talcum, magnesium carbonate and the like. Examples of additional inactive ingredients that can be added to provide desirable color, taste, stability, buffering capacity, dispersion or other known desirable features are red iron oxide, silica gel, sodium lauryl sulfate, titanium dioxide, edible white ink and the like. Similar diluents can be used to make compressed tablets. Both tablets and capsules can be manufactured as sustained release products to provide for continuous release of medication over a period of hours. Compressed tablets can be sugar coated or film coated to mask any unpleasant taste and protect the tablet from the atmosphere, or enteric-coated for selective disintegration in the gastrointestinal tract. Liquid dosage forms for oral administration can contain coloring and flavoring to increase patient acceptance.
Formulations suitable for buccal (sub-lingual) administration include lozenges comprising the FNR deficient enterobacterium strain in a flavored base, usually sucrose and acacia or tragacanth; and pastilles comprising the FNR deficient enterobacterium strain in an inert base such as gelatin and glycerin or sucrose and acacia.
Formulations of the present invention suitable for parenteral administration can comprise sterile aqueous and non-aqueous injection solutions of the FNR deficient enterobacterium strain, which preparations are generally isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient. These preparations can contain anti-oxidants, buffers, bacteriostats and solutes, which render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient. Aqueous and non-aqueous sterile suspensions can include suspending agents and thickening agents. The formulations can be presented in unit\dose or multi-dose containers, for example sealed ampoules and vials, and can be stored in a freeze-dried (lyophilized) condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquid carrier, for example, saline or water-for-injection immediately prior to use.
Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions can be prepared from sterile powders, granules and tablets. For example, in one aspect of the present invention, there is provided an injectable, stable, sterile composition comprising a FNR deficient enterobacterium strain of the invention, in a unit dosage form in a sealed container. Optionally, the composition is provided in the form of a lyophilizate, which is capable of being reconstituted with a suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carrier to form a liquid composition suitable for injection thereof into a subject.
Formulations suitable for rectal or vaginal administration can be presented as suppositories. These can be prepared by admixing the FNR deficient enterobacterium strain with one or more conventional excipients or carriers, for example, cocoa butter, polyethylene glycol or a suppository wax, which are solid at room temperature, but liquid at body temperature and therefore melt in the rectum or vaginal cavity and release the FNR deficient FNR deficient enterobacterium strain.
Formulations suitable for topical application to the skin can take the form of an ointment, cream, lotion, paste, gel, spray, aerosol, or oil. Carriers that can be used include petroleum jelly, lanoline, polyethylene glycols, alcohols, transdermal enhancers, and combinations of two or more thereof.
Formulations suitable for transdermal administration can be presented as discrete patches adapted to remain in intimate contact with the epidermis of the recipient for a prolonged period of time. Formulations suitable for transdermal administration can also be delivered by iontophoresis [see, for example, Pharmaceutical Research 3 (6):318 (1986)] and typically take the form of an optionally buffered aqueous solution. Suitable formulations comprise citrate or bis\tris buffer (pH 6) or ethanol/water.
The FNR deficient enterobacterium strain can be formulated for nasal administration or otherwise administered to the lungs of a subject by any suitable means, for example, by an aerosol suspension of respirable particles comprising the FNR deficient enterobacterium strain, which the subject inhales. The respirable particles can be liquid or solid. The term “aerosol” includes any gas-borne suspended phase, which is capable of being inhaled into the bronchioles or nasal passages. Specifically, an aerosol includes a gas-borne suspension of droplets, as can be produced in a metered dose inhaler or nebulizer, or in a mist sprayer. An aerosol also includes a dry powder composition suspended in air or other carrier gas, which can be delivered by insufflation from an inhaler device, for example. See Ganderton & Jones, Drug Delivery to the Respiratory Tract, Ellis Horwood (1987); Gonda (1990) Critical Reviews in Therapeutic Drug Carrier Systems 6:273-313; and Raeburn et al. (1992) J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Methods 27:143-159. Aerosols of liquid particles can be produced by any suitable means, such as with a pressure-driven aerosol nebulizer or an ultrasonic nebulizer, as is known to those of skill in the art. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,501,729. Aerosols of solid particles comprising the FNR deficient enterobacterium strain can likewise be produced with any solid particulate medicament aerosol generator, by techniques known in the pharmaceutical art.
In particular embodiments of the invention, administration is by subcutaneous or intradermal administration. Subcutaneous and intradermal administration can be by any method known in the art, including but not limited to injection, gene gun, powderject device, bioject device, microenhancer array, microneedles, and scarification (i.e., abrading the surface and then applying a solution comprising the FNR deficient enterobacterium strain).
In other embodiments, the FNR deficient enterobacterium strain is administered intramuscularly, for example, by intramuscular injection.
The examples which follow are set forth to illustrate the present invention, and are not to be construed as limiting thereof.

EXAMPLE 1

Materials and Methods

Bacterial strains. Wild-type (WT) serovar Typhimurium (ATCC 14028s) and its isogenic fnr mutant (NC 983) were used throughout the studies described herein. The mutant strain was constructed by transducing the fnr::Tn10 mutation from serovar Typhimurium [SL2986/TN 2958 (fnr::Tn10)] to strain 14028s using P22 phage (all from the culture collection of S. Libby). The transductants were plated on Evans blueuranine agar, and the tetracycline marker was eliminated (Bochner et al., (1980) J. Bacteriol. 143:926-933). The Tet^sand FNR⁻ phenotypes were confirmed by the inability of NC983 (fnr mutant) to grow on media containing tetracycline (10 μg/ml) and by its inability to grow anaerobically on M9 minimal medium containing glycerol plus nitrate, respectively. Sequence analysis of fnr and neighboring genes (i.e., ogt and ydaA, respectively) in NC 893 showed that the remnant of Tn10 (tnpA) interrupts fnr between bp 106 and 107 and has no polar effect on ogt or ydaA (FIG. 1).
For complementation studies, a low-copy-number plasmid expressing fnr (pfnr) was constructed. The complete fnr sequence starting from the stop codon of ogtA (TGA [indicated in boldface type]) to 21 bp downstream of fnr (i.e., a 972 bp fragment) was amplified from WT strain 14028s with the following primers: fnr-Forward, 5′-ATATCCATGGTGAATATACAGGAAAAAGTGC-3′ (an NcoI site is underlined; SEQ ID NO:1); fnr-Reverse, 5′-ATATATTCAGCTGCATCAATGGTTTAGCTGACG-3′ (a PvuII site is underlined; SEQ ID NO:2). The PCR product was digested with Ncol and PvuII and ligated into the low-copy-number vector pACYC184 cut with NcoI and PvuII. Thus, in the new plasmid (pfnr) the Cmr gene in pACYC184 is replaced with the fnr gene. The plasmid (pfnr) was electroporated and maintained in E. coli DH5α. Transformants were confirmed for Tet^r(15 μg/ml) and Cms (20 μg/ml) on Luria-Bertani (LB) plates, and the presence of the fnr gene was confirmed by restriction analysis using EcoRI and HindIII. The plasmid isolated from DH5α was used to complement the fnr mutant. Transformants were selected on LB plates containing tetracycline (15 μg/ml).
Growth conditions. The WT and the fnr mutant were grown anaerobically at 37° C. in MOPS (morpholinepropanesulfonic acid)-buffered (100 mM, pH 7.4) LB broth supplemented with 20 mM D-xylose (LB-MOPS-X). This medium was used in order to avoid the indirect effects of pH and catabolite repression. A Coy anaerobic chamber (Coy, Ann Arbor, Mich.) and anaerobic gas mixture (10% H2, 5% CO₂, and 85% N₂) were used. All solutions were preequilibrated for 48 h in the chamber. Cells from frozen stocks were used to inoculate LB-MOPS-X broth. Cultures were grown for 16 h and used to inoculate fresh anoxic media. The anaerobic growth kinetics of the mutant and the WT strains were similar, and the doubling times of the fnr mutant and the WT were 53.9±1.2 and 45.4±2.9 min, respectively.
RNA isolation. Anaerobic cultures were used to inoculate three independent flasks each containing 150 ml of anoxic LB-MOPS-X. The three independent cultures were grown to an optical density at 600 nm (OD600) of 0.25 to 0.35, pooled, and treated with RNAlater (QIAGEN, Valencia, Calif.) to fix the cells and preserve the quality of the RNA. Total RNA was extracted with the Rneasy RNA extraction kit (QIAGEN), and the samples were treated with RNase-free DNase (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). The absence of contaminating DNA and the quality of the RNA was confirmed by PCR amplification of known genes and by using agarose gel electrophoresis. Aliquots of the RNA samples were kept at −80° C. for use in the microarray and quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR) studies.
Microarray studies. Serovar Typhimurium microarray slides were prepared and used as previously described in Porwollik, S. et al., “The delta uvrB mutations in the Ames strains of Salmonella span 15-119 gene” Mutat. Res. 483:1-11 (2001). The SuperScript Indirect cDNA labeling system (Invitrogen) was used to synthesize the cDNA for the hybridizations. Each experiment consisted of two hybridizations, on two slides, and was carried out in Corning Hybridization Chambers at 42° C. overnight. Dye swapping was performed to avoid dye-associated effects on cDNA synthesis. The slides were washed at increasing stringencies (2×SSC [1×SSC is 0.15 M NaCl plus 0.015 M sodium citrate], 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate [SDS], 42° C.; 0.1% SSC, 0.1% SDS, room temperature; 0.1% SSC, room temperature). Following hybridization, the microarrays were scanned for the Cy3 and Cy5 fluorescent signals with a ScanArray 4000 microarray scanner from GSI Lumonics (Watertown, Mass.). The intensity of every spot was codified as the sum of the intensities of all the pixels within a circle positioned over the spot itself and the background as the sum of the intensities of an identical number of pixels in the immediate surroundings of the circled spot.
Data analysis. Cy3 and Cy5 values for each spot were normalized over the total intensity for each dye to account for differences in total intensity between the two scanned images. The consistency of the data obtained from the microarray analysis was evaluated by two methods: (i) a pair-wise comparison, calculated with a two-tailed Student's t test and analyzed by the MEAN and TTEST procedures of SAS-STAT statistical software (SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.) (the effective degrees of freedom for the t test were calculated as described previously in Satterthwaite, F. E. “An approximate distribution of estimates of variance components” Biometrics Bull. 2:110-114 (1946)); and (ii) a regularized t test followed by a posterior probability of differential expression [PPDE (p)] method. These statistical analyses are implemented in the Cyber-T software package available online at the website of the Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics of the University of California, Irvine. The signal intensity at each spot from the FNR mutant and the WT were background subtracted, normalized, and used to calculate the ratio of gene expression between the two strains. All replicas were combined, and the median expression ratios and standard deviations were calculated for open reading frames (ORFs) showing ≧2.5-fold change.
qRT-PCR. qRT-PCR was used to validate the microarray data, where 19 genes were randomly chosen from the differentially expressed genes. This technique was also used to confirm the expression of a set of selected genes. qRT-PCRs were carried out with the QuantiTect SYBR green RT-PCR kit (QIAGEN) and an iCycler (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.), and the data were analyzed by the Bio-Rad Optical System software, version 3.1, according to manufacturer specifications. To ensure accurate quantification of the mRNA levels, three amplifications for each gene were made with 1:5:25 dilutions of the total RNA. Measured mRNA levels were normalized to the mRNA levels of the housekeeping gene rpoD (σ70). Normalized values were used to calculate the ratios of the expression levels in the fnr mutant relative to the WT.
Logo graph and promoter analysis. The information matrix for the generation of the FNR logo was produced by using the alignment of the E. coli FNR binding sequences, available at http://arep.med.harvard.edu/ecoli_matrices/. The alignment of the FNR motifs from this website did not include the motifs present in the sodA and mutM promoters; therefore, they were included in our analysis. To account for differences in nucleotide usage or slight variations in consensus sequences, a second alignment was built for serovar Typhimurium using the 5′ regions of the homologous genes originally used to build the E. coli information matrix. The alignment was used to prepare a new information matrix using the Patser software (version 3d), available at http://rsat.ub.ac.be/rsat/. A graphical representation (FIG. 2) of the matrices through a logo graph was obtained with Weblogo software (version 2.8.1, 18 Oct. 2004), available at http://weblogo.berkeley.edu/.
Motility assay and electron microscopy. The motilities of the WT, the fnr mutant, and the complemented mutant/pfnr were evaluated under anoxic conditions. Ten microliters of anaerobically grown (16 h) cells were spotted onto LB-MOPS-X agar (0.6% agar) plates and incubated at 37° C. for 24 h. The diameter of the growth halo was used as a measure of motility. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to examine the morphology of the extracellular surfaces. WT and fnr cultures were grown anaerobically (OD600, 0.3 to 0.4) and centrifuged, and the pellets were resuspended in a fixative solution (3% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate-buffered saline [PBS] [pH 7.4]) under anaerobic conditions. The fixed samples were rinsed in 0.1 M PBS buffer, postfixed with 1% osmium tetroxide in 0.1 M PBS for 2 h, and rinsed with PBS, all at 4° C. An aliquot of each sample was filtered through a 0.1-μm filter. Each filter was dehydrated through a graded ethanol series (up to 100%), brought to room temperature, critical point dried with liquid CO₂(Tousimis Research, Rockville, Md.), placed on stubs, and sputter coated with Au/Pd (Anatech Ltd., Denver, N.C.). Samples were viewed at 15 kV with a JEOL 5900LV SEM (JEOL USA, Peabody, Mass.). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and negative staining were used to visualize the flagella. WT and fnr cultures were grown anaerobically (OD600, 0.3 to 0.4), and a 20-μl aliquot of each sample was separately placed on a Formvar-carbon grid. The grids were washed with 0.1 M sodium acetate (pH 6.6), negatively stained with 2% phosphotungstic acid (PTA), and air dried for 5 min before being viewed at 80 kV with a JEOL JEM-100S TEM (JEOL USA, Peabody, Mass.).
Pathocenicity assays. Immunocompetent 6- to 8-week-old C57BL/6 mice and their congenic iNOS−/− and pg91phox^−/− immunodeficient mice (bred in the University of Colorado Health Science Center [UCHSC] animal facility according to Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee guidelines) were used in this study. Stationary-phase serovar Typhimurium (WT and fnr mutant) cultures grown aerobically in LB-MOPS-X broth were used, and the cells were diluted in PBS. For oral (p.o.) challenge, groups of 10 mice were gavaged with 5×10⁶or 5×10⁷CFU in 200 μl of PBS/mouse. For intraperitoneal (i.p.) challenge, groups of five mice were inoculated with 250 CFU in 500 μl of PBS/mouse. Mortality was scored over a 15- to 30-day period.
Macrophage assay. Peritoneal macrophages were harvested from C57BL/6 mice and pg91phox^−/− immunodeficient mice (bred in the UCHSC animal facility) 4 days after intraperitoneal inoculation with 1 mg/ml sodium periodate and used as previously described in DeGroote, M. A. et al. “Periplasmic superoxide dismutase protects Salmonella from products of phagocyte NADPH-oxidase and nitric oxide synthase” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 94:13997-14001 (1997). Macrophages were challenged (multiplicity of infection of 2) for 25 min with the different test strains. Stationary-phase cultures grown aerobically in LB-MOPS-X broth were used as outlined above. Prior to infection, each strain was opsonized with 10% normal mouse serum for 20 min. After the challenge, extracellular bacteria were removed from the monolayers by washing with prewarmed RPMI medium (Cellgro, Herndon, Va.) containing gentamicin (6 mg/ml) (Sigma), the Salmonella-infected macrophages were lysed at indicated time points, and the surviving bacteria were enumerated on LB agar plates. The results are expressed as percent survival relative to the number of viable intracellular bacteria recovered at time zero (i.e., after washing and removal of the extracellular bacteria, 25 min after infection).
Microarray data. The microarray data are accessible via GEO accession number GSE3657 at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/qeo (the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety).

EXAMPLE 2

Transcriptome Profiling

Out of 4,579 genes, the two-tailed Student t test produced a set of 1,664 coding sequences showing significant differences (P<0.05) between the fnr mutant and the WT. The analysis was restricted to include highly affected genes (i.e., having a ratio of ≧2.5-fold). Under this constraint, 311 genes were differentially expressed in the fnr mutant relative to the WT; of these, 189 genes were up-regulated and 122 genes were down-regulated by FNR (Table 3). The 311 FNR-regulated genes were classified into clusters of orthologous groups (COGs) as defined at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/COG. Throughout the study levels of transcription in the fnr mutant were compared to that in the WT strain. Thus, genes repressed by FNR possess values of >1, while genes activated by FNR have values of <1.
In order to globally validate the microarray data, 19 of the 311 differentially expressed genes for qRT-PCR were selected. The measured levels of mRNA were normalized to the mRNA levels of the housekeeping gene rpoD. The specific priers used for qRT-PCR and the normalized mRNA levels are shown in Table 1. The microarray and qRT-PCR data were log₂transformed and plotted (FIG. 3). The correlation between the two sets of data was 0.94 (P<0.05).
To determine whether a binding site for FNR might be present in the region upstream of the candidate FNR-regulated genes, 5′ regions of these genes were searched for the presence of a putative FNR-binding motif using a Salmonella logo graph (FIG. 2). One hundred ten out of the 189 genes activated by FNR (58%) and 59 out of the 122 genes repressed by FNR (48%) contained at least one putative FNR-binding site.

EXAMPLE 3

FNR as a Repressor

Transcription of the genes required for aerobic metabolism, energy generation, and nitric oxide detoxification was repressed by FNR. In particular, the genes coding for cytochrome c oxidase (cyoABCDE), cytochrome cd complex (cydAB), NADH-dehydrogenase (nuoBCEFJLN), succinyl-coenzyme A (CoA) metabolism (sucBCD), fumarases (fumB, stm0761, and stm0762), and the NO.-detoxifying flavohemoglobin (hmpA) were expressed at higher levels in the fnr mutant than in the WT (Table 3). Also, genes required for L-lactate metabolism (IId-PRD) and for the production of phosphoenolpyruvate (pykF), oxaloacetate (ppc), and acetoacetyl-CoA (yqeF) were expressed at higher levels in the mutant than in the WT (Table 3).

EXAMPLE 4

FNR as an Activator

Several genes associated with anaerobic metabolism, flagellar biosynthesis, motility, chemotaxis, and Salmonella pathogenesis were activated by FNR. The genes constituting the dms operon, dmsABC (encoding the anaerobic dimethyl sulfoxide reductase), required for the use of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as an anaerobic electron acceptor, had the lowest expression levels (i.e., −200-, −62-, and −23-fold, respectively) in the fnr mutant relative to the WT (Table 3). Two other operons coding for putative anaerobic DMSO reductases (STM4305 to STM4307 and STM2528 to STM2530) were also under positive control by FNR. The genes required for the conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate (pps), Ac-CoA (aceF), Ac-P (pta), and OAc (ackA), as well as those for the production of formate (tdcE, yfiD, focA) and D-lactate (IdhA), were expressed at lower levels in the fnr mutant than in the WT. In addition, the genes coding for a universal stress protein (ynaF), a ferritinlike protein (ftnB), an ATP-dependent helicase (hrpA), and aerotaxis/redox sensing (aer) were also positively regulated by FNR (Table 3).
The genes for ethanolamine utilization (eut operon) had lower transcript levels in the fnr mutant (FIG. 4B). Although the FNR-dependent genes for tetrathionate utilization (ttrABCSR), a major anaerobic electron acceptor, were not affected by the lack of FNR, this was not surprising since tetrathionate is also needed to induce expression.
Several of the middle flagellar (class 2) genes (e.g., flgNMDEFGKL and fliZADSTHJLM) and late flagellar (class 3) genes (e.g., cheZYBRMWA, motBA, aer, trg, and tsr) had lower transcript levels in the fnr mutant than in the WT (FIG. 4C to E). There was no significant difference in the transcript levels of the early flagellar genes (class 1) flhD and flhc, whose gene products FlhD/FlhC are the master regulators of flagellar biosynthesis (FIG. 4D). In addition, many newly identified flagellar genes (i.e., mcpA, mcpC, and cheV) had lower expression levels in the fnr mutant, while the expression of mcpB was not affected.
Several genes in SPI-1 (e.g., prgKJIH, iagB, sicA, spaPO, invJICBAEGF) had lower levels of expression in the fnr mutant than in the WT (FIG. 4A). This region contains genes coding for a type three secretion system and for proteins required for invasion and interaction with host cells. The data also show that genes belonging to the other SPIs were unaffected by the lack of FNR. However, the virulence operon srfABC, which is located outside SPI-2 and regulated by a two-component regulatory system (SsrAB) located on SPI-2 (Waterman et al. (2003) Cell. Microbiol. 5:501-511; Worley et al., (2000) Mol. Microbiol. 36:749-761), was differentially regulated by FNR. The effects of FNR on a subset of the above-mentioned invasion and virulence genes were further confirmed by measuring the levels of mRNA in the fnr mutant and the WT strains by qRT-PCR (Table 2).

EXAMPLE 5

Effects of FNR on Motility and Flagella

Expression of the flagellar biosynthesis, motility, and chemotaxis genes was lower in the fnr mutant than in the WT. Therefore, the WT, fnr mutant was compared to the mutant cells harboring pfnr for motility in soft agar under anaerobic conditions. The data indicate that the fnr mutant was nonmotile and that the lack of motility was complemented (˜75%) by the inclusion of pfnr. The 100% complementation by pfnr is probably due to extra copies of the global regulator FNR. The WT was also compared to the mutant for the presence of flagella by SEM and TEM. Taken together, these data show that the fnr mutant is nonmotile due to the lack of flagella.

EXAMPLE 6

Effects of FNR on Pathogenicity and Killing by Macrophages

FNR positively regulates the expression of various loci (see Table 3), such as motility and SPI-1 genes that are important determinants for Salmonella pathogenesis, so the virulence of fnr in a murine model of mucosal and acute infection was tested. In immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice, the fnr mutant was completely attenuated over a 15-day period following an oral challenge with 5×10⁶or 5×10⁷CFU/mouse, while the WT strain killed all mice within 10 or 12 days, respectively (FIG. 5A). The mutant strain was also 100% attenuated when 250 CFU/mouse were inoculated i.p. (FIG. 5B). The different Salmonella strains were also tested for the ability to survive killing by macrophages (FIG. 6). Similar numbers of fnr mutant and WT cells were recovered from the macrophages 25 min after infection (designated as time zero postinfection). Data in FIG. 6A indicate that the lack of FNR resulted in a dramatic reduction in the ability of Salmonella to replicate in macrophages. Interestingly, most of the killing of the WT by macrophages took place during the first 2 h postinfection (i.e., the WT resisted further killing beyond 2 h), while the viability of the fnr mutant continued to decline by 1 log between 2 and 20 h postinfection (FIGS. 6A and B). Data in FIG. 6B also show that this phenotype is complemented in fnr mutant cells harboring pfnr. Congenic iNOS−/− mice (unable to make NO.) and pg91phox^−/− mice (defective in oxidative burst oxidase) were used to examine the roles of reactive nitrogen and oxygen species (RNS and ROS), respectively, in resistance to an acute systemic infection with FNR-deficient or WT Salmonella. The fnr mutant was as attenuated in iNOS^−/− mice as in congenic WT C57BL/6 controls. In sharp contrast, the fnr mutant killed pg91phox^−/− mice, albeit at a lower rate than the WT strain (FIGS. 7A and B). Consistent with the in vivo data, the WT and the isogenic fnr mutant survived to similar extents in NADPH oxidase-deficient macrophages isolated from pg91phox^−/− mice (FIG. 7C).

The foregoing is illustrative of the present invention, and is not to be construed as limiting thereof. The invention is defined by the following claims, with equivalents of the claims to be included therein.

TABLE 1


Validation of microarray data using qRT-PCR of randomly
selected genes relative to the housekeeping gene, rpoD^a.

Ratio of

SEQ

Frag-

fnr mutant/WT

Log₂ ratio

			ID	ment	S. Typhimurium	qRT-	Micro-	qRT-	Micro-
Locus^b	Name^c	Primer sequence^d	NO:	(bp)^e	Gene Function^f	PCR^g	array^h	PCRⁱ	array^j

STM3217	aer	CGTACAACATCTTAATCGTAGC	3	163	Aerotaxis sensor recep-	0.190	0.210	−2.4	−2.3
		TTCGTTCAGATCATTATTACCC			tor; senses cellular
					redox state or proton
					motive force

STM1781	cheM	GCCAATTTCAAAAATATGACG	5	114	Methyl-accepting chemo-	0.036	0.120	−4.8	−3.1
		GTCCAGAAACTGAATAAGTTCG	6		taxis protein II;
					aspartate sensor-
					receptor

STM0441	cyoC	TATTTAGCTCCATTACCTACGG	7	134	Cytochrome o ubiquinol	153.967	7.096	7.3	2.8
		GGAATTCATAGAGTTCCATCC	8		oxidase subunit III

STM1803	dadA	TAACCTTTCGCTTTAATACTCC	9	156	D-Amino acid dehydro-	2.835	3.169	1.5	1.7
		GATATCAACAATGCCTTTAAGC	10		genase subunit

STM0964	dmsA	AGCGTCTTATCAAAGAGTATGG	11	154	Anaerobic dimethyl	0.001	0.005	−9.8	−7.6
		TCACCGTAGTGATTAAGATAACC	12		sulfoxide reductase,
					subunit A

STM2892	invJ	TTGCTATCGTCTAAAAATAGGC	13	128	Surface presentation of	0.246	0.182	−2.0	−2.5
		TTGATATTATCGTCAGAGATTCC	14		antigens; secretory
					proteins

STM2324	nuoF	GGATATCGAGACACTTGAGC	15	163	NADH dehydrogenase I,	2.894	2.600	1.5	1.4
		GATTAAATGGGTATTACTGAACG	16		chain F

STM0650	STM0650	CAACAGCTTATTGATTTAGTGG	17	130	Putative hydrolase, C	0.476	0.219	−1.1	−2.2
		CTAACGATTTTTCTTCAATGG	18		terminus

STM2787	STM2787	AAGCGAATACAGCTATGAACC	19	144	Tricarboxylic transport	28.241	6.892	4.8	2.8
		ATTAGCTTTTGCAGAACATGG	20

STM4463	STM4463	AAGGTATCAGCCAGTCTACG	21	142	Putative arginine	0.325	0.181	−1.6	−2.5
		CGTATGGATAAGGATAAATTCG	22		repressor

STM4535	STM4535	TAAGCCAGCAGGTAGATACG	23	139	Putative PTS permease	6.053	8.217	2.6	3.0
		CGACATAAAGAGATCGATAACC	24

STM2464	eutN	AGGACAAATCGTATGTACCG	25	153	Putative detox protein	0.062	0.125	−4.0	−3.0
		ACCAGCAGTACCCACTCTCC	26		in ethanolamine utili-
					zation

STM2454	eutR	GGTAAAAGAGCAGCATAAAGC	27	118	Putative regulator;	0.043	0.195	−4.6	−2.4
		ATTATCACTCAAGACCTTACGC	28		ethanolamine operon
					(AraC/XylS family)

STM2470	eutS	AATAAAGAACGCATTATTCAGG	29	137	Putative carboxysome	0.049	0.073	−4.3	−3.8
		GTTAAAGTCATAATGCCAATCG	30		structural protein;
					ethanol utilization

STM1172	flgM	AGCGACATTAATATGGAACG	31	126	Anti-FliA (anti-sigma)	0.050	0.174	−4.3	−2.5
		TTTACTCTGTAAGTAGCTCTGC	32		factor; also known as
					RflB protein

STM3692	lldP	TGATTAAACTCAAGCTGAAAGG	33	189	LctP transporter; L-	76.492	16.003	6.3	4.0
		CCGAAATTTTATAGACAAAGACC	34		lactate permease

STM3693	lldR	GAACAGAATATCGTGCAACC	35	153	Putative transcriptional	68.378	30.597	6.1	4.9
		GAGTCTGATTTTCTCTTTGTCG	36		regulator for lct operon
					(GntR family)

STM1923	motA	GGTTATCGGTACAGTTTTCG	37	194	Proton conductor com-	0.048	0.092	−4.4	−3.4
		TAGATTTTGTGTATTTCGAACG	38		ponent of motor; torque
					generator

STM4277	nrfA	GACTAACTCTCTGTCGAAAACC	39	159	Nitrite reductase; peri-	0.051	0.324	−4.3	−1.6
		ATTTTATGGTCGGTGTAGAGC	40		plasmic cytochrome c₅₅₂

^aSTM3211 (rpoD) was used as the reference gene where no significant change in expression level was observed. The primer sequences (5′ to 3′) used for rpoD were as follows: CGATGTCTCTGAAGAAGTGC (forward; SEQ ID NO:41) and TTCAACCATCTCTTTCTTCG (reverse; SEQ ID NO:42). The size of the fragment generated is 150 bp.
^bLocation of the open reading frame (ORF) in the S. Typhimurium LT2 genome.
^cRespective gene name or symbol.
^dFor each set, the first primer is the forward primer and the second primer is the reverse primer.
^eSize of the amplified PCR product.
^fFunctional classification according to the KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) database.
^gExpression levels of quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction - values shown as the ratio between the fnr mutant and the wild-type; where values <1 indicate that FNR acts as an activator, and values >1 indicate FNR acts as a repressor.
^hExpression levels from the microarray data - values shown as the ratio between the fnr mutant and the wild-type; where values <1 indicate that FNR acts as an activator, and values >1 indicate FNR acts as a repressor.
ⁱExpression levels of quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction comparing the fnr mutant versus the wild-type - shown in signal to log2 ratio (SLR).
^jExpression levels of microarray data comparing the fnr mutant versus the wild-type - shown in signal to 10g2 ratio (SLR).

TABLE 2


qRT-PCR of Selected Invasion and Virulence Genes^a

				Frag-
			SEQ	ment
			ID	size
Locus^b	Name^c	Primer sequence^d	NO:	(bp)^e	Ratio^f

STM2893	invI	5′-CTTCGCTATCAGGATGAGG-3′	43	161	−9.27
		5′-CGAACAATAGACTGCTTACG-3′	44

STM2874	prgH		5′-GGCTCGTCAGGTTTTAGC-3′	45	190	−8.45
		5′-CTTGCTCATCGTGTTTCG-3′	46

STM2871	prgK		5′-ATTCGCTGGTATCGTCTCC-3′	47	199	−8.56
		5′-GAACCTCGTTCATATACGG-3′	48

STM2886	sicA		5′-GATTACACCATGGGACTGG-3′	49	207	−3.92
		5′-CAGAGACTCATCTTCAGTACG-3′	50

STM1593	srfA		5′-AGGCGGCATTTAGTCAGG-3′	51	176	−4.33
		5′-GACAGGTAAGCTCCACAGC-3′	52

STM1594	srfB		5′-GGTACCAGAAATACAGATGG-3′	53	190	−6.55
		5′-GCCGATATCAATCGATGC-3′	54

^adSTM3211 (rpoD) was used as the reference gene where no significant change in expression level was observed. The primer sequences used for rpoD were as follows: 5′-CGATGTCTCTGAAGAAGTGC-3′ (forward; SEQ ID NO:41) and 5′-TTCAACCATCTCTTTCTTCG-3′ (reverse; SEQ ID NO:42). The size of the fragment generated was 150 bp.
^bLocation of the open reading frame (ORF) in the S. Typhimurium LT2 genome.
^cRespective gene name or symbol.
^dFor each set, the first primer is the forward and the second primer is the reverse.
^eSize of the amplified PCR product.
^fRatio of the transcription levels in the fnr mutant relative to the wild-type.

TABLE 3


Differentially expressed genes and the presence/absence of putative FNR-binding motifs in their 5′ regions.

STM Gene

t

Prob

In

Locus^a

Category^b

Name^c

Function^d

value^e

DF^f

t^g

Ratio^h

Strandⁱ

Start^j

End^k

Sequence^l

Score^m

(P)ⁿ

PSLT018

—

pefA

plasmid-

−6.11

5.92

9.16E − 04

−2.56

encoded

fimbriae;

subunit

major

fimbrial

subunit

PSLT019

—

pefB

plasmid-

−9.86

6.59

346E − 05

−4.59

R

−337

−316

tttcTTTTTTGATATATGTCTTTTCAtgta

5.41

−7.58

encoded

fimbriae;

regulation

STM0002

E

thrA

aspartokinase

−11.82

7.27

5.20E − 06

−3.33

R

−351

−330

GGAATTGGTTGAAAATAAATATatcg

5.71

−7.83

I, bifunc-

tional

enxyme N-

terminal is

aspartokinaseI

and C-terminal

is homoserine

dehydrogenase

I

STM0041

G

STM0041

putative

−9.21

5.78

1.15E − 04

−3.19

glycosyl

hydrolase

STM0042

G

STM0042

putative

−12.79

5.16

4.17E − 05

−3.32

sodium

galactoside

symporter

STM0153

C

aceF

pyruvate

−7.07

5.72

4.93E − 04

−3.83

D

−52

−31

gaatAATGGCTATCGAAATCAAAGTAccgg

4.98

−7.24

dehydrogenase,

dihydrolipoyl-

transacetylase

component

STM0178

G

yadI

putative PTS

−6.35

5.43

1.05E − 03

−7.00

D

−263

−242

tttaTAATATATATTTAATCAATTATtttg

5.19

−7.41

enzyme

STM0439

H

cyoE

protohaeme IX

9.48

5.20

1.77E − 04

7.71

D

−102

−81

tctgGATTATGTGGAACCTCAACTACaaca

4.54

−6.9

farnesyl-

transferase

(haeme O

biosynthesis

STM0440

C

cyoD

cytochrome o

13.11

5.21

3.45E − 05

7.05

R

−326

−305

tatcGGGATGGAACTCTATGAATTCCatca

4.64

−6.98

ubiquinol

oxidase sub-

unit IV

STM0441

C

cyoC

cytochrome o

36.33

5.46

9.96E − 08

7.10

ubiquinol

oxidase sub-

unit III

STM0442

C

cyoB

cytochrome o

22.84

5.64

8.89E − 07

5.05

R

−206

−185

aaccTGATTTGTTCAAGGACGTTATTaaca

4.18

−6.63

ubiquinol

oxidase sub-

unit I

STM0443

C

cyoA

cytochrome o

22.81

5.46

1.25E − 06

4.51

D

−68

−47

ccgtGGAATTGAGGTCGTTAAATGAGactc

5.84

−7.94

ubiquinol

oxidase sub-

unit II

STM0465

S

ybaY

glycoprotein/

−15.14

5.29

1.46E − 05

−4.75

R

−75

−54

ctggTGCATTGATGATAAGGAGAATTgaat

5.34

−7.53

polysaccharide

metabolism

STM0467

—

ffs

signal

−9.58

5.21

1.67E − 04

−4.45

recognition

particle, RNA

component

STM0650

G

STM0650

putative

−9.87

5.46

1.10E − 04

−4.56

D

−55

−34

aaggGAAAATGATTATGAGCAATGAGactt

6.95

−8.95

hydrolase C-

terminus

STM0659

O

hscC

putative

−15.49

8.16

2.46E − 07

−2.82

R

−128

−107

gcgtGACATTGATAAAGATCACCACGccag

5.25

−7.46

heatshock

protein,

homolog of

hsp70 in

Hsc66 sub-

family

STM0662

E

gltL

ABC

12.96

5.46

2.61E − 05

4.39

R

−309

−288

actgGCAGTCGATGAAGCTCATTATTctgc

5.97

−8.06

superfamily

(atpbind),

glutamate/

aspartate

transporter

STM0663

E

gltK

ABC

12.08

8.19

1.67E − 06

2.81

superfamily

(membrane),

glutamate/

aspartate

transporter

STM0664

E

gltJ

ABC

12.47

7.16

4.09E − 06

2.67

D

−62

−41

tttcGGAGTAGATGTATGTCAATAGActgg

4.58

−6.93

superfamily

(membrane),

glutamate/

aspartate

transporter

STM0665

E

gltI

ABC

10.65

5.77

5.20E − 05

4.24

D

−216

−195

taggATTTTTGCCTCTGAACGGTGCGgcgc

5.67

−7.6

superfamily

(bindprot),

glutamate/

aspartate

transporter

STM0699

R

STM0699

putative

−15.11

6.35

3.25E − 06

−4.22

R

−30

−9

ggaaGTCACTGATATAGCAGAAATACtggc

6.99

−8.99

cytoplasmic

protein

STM0728

L

nei

endonuclease

16.01

6.47

190E − 06

2.57

D

−80

−59

tccaTTAATCAACTGTTAACAAAGGAtatt

5.12

−7.35

VIII removing

oxidized

pyrimidines

may also

remove

oxidized

purines in

absence of

MutY and Fpg

[EC:3.2.-.-]

STM0737

C

sucB

2-oxoglutarate

14.92

9.44

7.01E − 08

2.75

dehydrogenase

(dihydrolipoyl-

transsuccinase

E2 component)

STM0738

C

sucC

succinyl-CoA

21.50

5.79

9.65E − 07

4.03

D

−39

−18

acatGAATATCAGGCAAAACAACTTTttgc

6.69

−8.71

synthetase,

beta subunit

STM0739

C

sucD

succinyl-CoA

23.03

5.62

8.87E − 07

4.66

synthetase,

alpha subunit

STM0740

C

cydA

cytochrome d

17.22

6.09

2.13E − 06

2.55

R

−307

−286

gccaTAAATTGATCGCTGTCGAAAAAagca

10.38

−13.11

terminal

oxidase,

polypeptide

subunit I

[EC:1.10.3.-]

STM0741

C

cydB

cytochrome d

21.16

5.67

1.30E − 06

3.74

D

−169

−148

cagaATTGTTCCTGATGTTCAAATTTgcac

5.62

−7.76

terminal

oxidase

polypeptide

subunit II

STM0742

S

ybgT

putative outer

11.38

7.56

5.01E − 06

4.34

R

−165

−144

tgttCGTACCGATCATTCTGATCTACacca

4.83

−7.12

membrane

lipoprotein

STM0743

S

ybgE

putative inner

13.92

9.36

1.44E − 07

3.48

R

−102

−81

cacgTGCACTGTTGGAAGAGGTTATCcgac

4.31

−6.72

membrane

lipoprotein

STM0759

—

ybgS

putative

−14.35

5.04

2.80E − 05

−4.60

homeobox

protein

STM0761

C

STM0761

fumarate

6.55

5.53

8.38E − 04

4.48

hydratase

Class I

anaerobic

STM0762

C

STM0762

fumarate

8.26

5.15

3.67E − 04

5.69

D

−340

−319

agttTATTTTTCTTTCTATCAAATAAtgtc

6.33

−8.37

hydratase,

alpha

subunit

STM0781

P

modA

ABC

−22.42

7.26

5.78E − 08

−3.12

R

−140

−119

tttaATCGTTAATGGGTATGAATAACcgct

6.43

−8.47

superfamily

(periperm),

molybdate

transporter

STM0790

—

hutU

pseudogene;

9.49

5.45

1.36E − 04

5.44

frameshift

relative to

Pseudomonas

putida

urocanate

hydratase

(HUTU)

SW:P25080

STM0791

E

hutH

histidine

19.06

6.84

3.51E − 07

4.55

ammonia

lyase

STM0828

E

glnQ

ABC

8.23

6.06

1.66E − 04

2.86

superfamily

(atpbind),

glutamine

high-

affinity

transporter

STM0830

E

glnH

ABC

9.60

5.47

1.26E − 04

3.70

superfamily

(bindprot),

glutamine

high-

affinity

transporter

STM0853

—

yliH

putative

−15.57

6.53

2.08E − 06

−3.33

cytoplasmic

protein

STM0907

R

aSTM09097

Fels-1

−6.72

5.39

8.16E − 04

−3.12

prophage;

putative

chitinase

STM0912

O

aSTM0912

Fels-1

11.94

7.50

3.81E − 06

3.40

prophage;

protease

subunits of

ATP-dependent

proteases,

ClpP family

STM0964

C

dmsA

anaerobic

−18.73

5.00

7.95E − 06

−200.85

D

−151

−130

ctacTTTTTCGATATATATCAGACTTtata

7.44

−9.43

dimethyl

sulfoxide

reductase,

subunit A

STM0965

C

dmsB

anaerobic

−53.46

5.29

1.93E − 08

−62.55

dimethyl

sulfoxide

reductase,

subunit B

STM0966

R

dmsC

anaerobic

−28.93

5.04

8.52E − 07

−23.60

R

−260

−239

gtaaGAAACCGATTTGCGTCGAATCCtgcc

8.79

−10.93

dimethyl

sulfoxide

reductase,

subunit C

STM0972

—

STM0972

homologous

5.62

6.48

1.04E − 03

3.07

D

−256

−235

aataATTCTCAACATAATTCAGATGTgtcc

4.68

−7 01

to secreted

protein

sopD

STM0974

P

focA

putative FNT

−7.49

5.77

3.53E − 04

−3.19

R

−129

−108

ggcgAGATATGATCTATATCAAATTCtcat

8.35

−10.41

family,

formate

transporter

(formate

channel 1)

STM0989

—

STM0989

mukF protein

−10.99

5.11

9.47E − 05

−4.90

R

−279

−258

cgtgCGCGCTGAAATGCGTTAACATGatcc

4

−65

(killing

factor KicB)

STM1118

—

yccJ

putative

−9.37

5.50

1.38E − 04

−4.94

cytoplasmic

protein

STM1119

R

wraB

trp-repressor

−10.54

5.13

1.14E − 04

−6.45

D

−167

−146

attaATTATTGTTATAAATCAAAGAAatgg

9.3

−11.57

binding

protein

STM1123

S

STM1123

putative

4.28

6.28

4.69E − 03

3.13

periplasmic

protein

STM1124

—

putA

bifunctional

24.50

6.20

2.07E − 07

7.57

in plasma

membrane

proline

dehydrogenase

and pyrroline-

5-carboxylate

dehydrogenase

OR in cyto-

plasma tran-

scriptional

repressor

STM1125

E

putP

SSS family,

14.50

5.46

1.44E − 05

7.16

D

−195

−174

tgtaAATGGTGTGTTAAATCGATTGTgaat

7.78

−9.79

major

sodium/

proline

symporter

STM1126

—

phoH

PhoB-

9.41

6.88

3.56E − 05

2.63

NA

dependent,

ATP-binding

pho regulon

component

STM1128

E

STM1128

putative

−18.20

6.39

9.58E − 07

−4.78

R

−289

−268

cctgAAGCCTGTTTGAACGCAATATCggat

5.25

−7.45

sodium/

glucose

cotransporter

STM1129

G

STM1129

putative

−15.72

5.52

8.59E − 06

−6.50

inner

membrane

protein

STM1130

S

STM1130

putative

−9.85

5.15

1.56E − 04

−11.85

inner

membrane

protein

STM1131

—

STM1131

putative

−10.50

5.84

5.25E − 05

−4.67

D

−58

−37

cggaGTATTTTATGAAAATCAACAAAtatc

7.06

−9.06

outer

membrane

protein

STM1132

G

STM1132

putative

−9.42

5.29

1.67E − 04

−6.20

R

−120

−99

ttcgGCAATTGATATGACTTAAAAATtaat

10.03

−12.57

sugar

transort

protein

STM1133

R

STM1133

putative

−14.98

5.29

1.56E − 05

−5.56

D

−90

−69

cgtgAAAGTTTTCAATCAACAAAAGAattt

4.6

−6.94

dehydrogenases

and related

proteins

STM1138

—

ycdZ

putative

−9.09

5.03

2.62E − 04

−11.00

D

−106

−85

agaaTAATGTGATGTAAATCACCCTTaact

5.45

−7.62

inner

membrane

protein

STM1171

N

flgN

flagellar

−12.69

5.24

3.93E − 05

−7.85

biosynthesis:

belived to be

export

chaperone for

FlgK and FlgL

STM1172

K

flgM

anti-FliA

−13.69

5.30

2.46E − 05

5.75

R

−72

−51

cgtaACCCTCGATGAGGATAAATAAAtgag

5.44

−7.61

(anti-sigma)

factor; also

known as

RflB protein

STM1176

N

flgD

flagellar

−11.76

5.49

4.21E − 05

−2.94

biosynthesis,

initiation of

hook assembly

STM1177

N

flgE

flagellar

−14.54

5.88

7.83E − 06

−3.56

biosynthesis,

hook protein

STM1178

N

flgF

flagellar

−7.59

6.06

2.58E − 04

−2.81

biosynthesis,

cell-proximal

portion of

basal-body rod

STM1179

N

flgG

flagellar

−7.52

5.56

4.10E − 04

−3.50

biosynthesis,

cell-distal

portion of

basal-body rod

STM1183

N

flgK

flagellar

−11.80

5.20

5.95E − 05

−5.67

biosynthesis,

hook-filament

junction

protein 1

STM1184

N

flgL

flagellar

−11.04

5.33

7.16E − 05

−4.18

biosynthesis;

hook-filament

junction

protein

STM1227

E

pepT

putative

−13.20

6.24

8.57E − 06

−2.67

peptidase

T(aminotri-

peptidase)

STM1254

—

STM1254

putative

−8.06

5.65

2.64E − 04

−3.82

outer

membrane

lipoprotein

STM1271

P

yeaR

putative

13.89

5.66

1.37E − 05

4.25

R

−284

−263

gcaaTTCTTTGATTGGCCTTCTTTTCgtcg

4.81

−7.1

cytoplasmic

protein

STM1272

—

yoaG

putative

6.92

7.98

1.23E − 04

2.87

D

−225

−204

cggaAGAGATCATGGTGATCAATGCCggcg

8.55

−10.65

cytoplasmic

protein

STM1300

—

STM1300

putative

−8.78

5.08

2.93E − 04

−4.83

D

−256

−235

ggttGTATTTGCGTTTTATCAGAATAtgta

6.36

−8.4

periplasmic

protein

STM1301

L

STM1301

putative

−9.26

5.65

1.27E − 04

−3.36

mutator

MutT

protein

STM1349

G

pps

phospho-

−19.01

5.69

2.28E − 06

−3.45

D

−58

−37

aggaTTGTTCGATGTCCAACAATGGCtcgt

5.74

−7.86

enolpyruvate

synthase

STM1378

G

pykF

pyruvate

14.46

5.51

1.36E − 05

2.55

kinase I

(formerly F),

fructose

stimulated

STM1489

H

ynfK

putative

−11.20

5.23

7.52E − 05

−8.40

R

−140

−119

aactCAAGCTGATTGCCCTTGCCATAtctt

4.73

−7.04

dethiobiotin

synthase

STM1498

C

STM1498

putative

−21.41

5.10

3.44E − 06

−27.55

R

−177

−156

atacAAATCTGGTGGAAATCGAAAAAatct

4.87

−7.15

dimethyl

sulphoxide

reductase

STM1499

C

STM1499

putative

−19.08

5.35

3.98E − 06

−8.27

D

−101

−80

ataaTTTCGTTATAGTTATCAATATAtagc

4.38

−6.78

dimethyl

sulphoxide

reductase,

chain A1

STM1509

—

ydfZ

putative

−14.41

5.58

1.25E − 05

−7.62

R

−161

−140

ccgtGAGCTTGATCAAAAACAAAAAAaatt

8.84

−10.98

cytoplasmic

protein

STM1538

C

STM1538

putative

11.55

5.78

3.28E − 05

3.96

hydrogenase-1

large subunit

STM1539

C

STM1539

putative

8.66

5.44

2.21E − 04

3.53

hydrogenase

small subunit

STM1562

—

STM1562

putative

−11.30

5.28

6.68E − 05

−4.99

D

−217

−196

tgctTTATTCATCAAACATCAAAATCagtc

6.71

−8.73

periplasmic

transport

protein

STM1564

—

yddX

putative

−10.75

8.27

3.83E − 06

−2.93

cytoplasmic

protein

STM1568

C

fdnI

formate

−28.97

6.32

5.81E − 08

−3.98

R

−119

−98

tcgcCGGTCTGATTTACCACTACATCggta

7.14

−9.14

dehydro-

genase-N

cytochrome

B556(Fdn)

gamma sub-

unit,

nitrate-

inducible

STM1569

C

fdnH

formate

−9.33

8.93

6.68E − 06

−2.50

dehydro-

genase,

iron-sulfur

subunit

(formate

dehydro-

genase

beta sub-

unit)

[EC:1.2.1.2]

STM1593

—

srfA

ssrAB

−5.82

6.28

9.63E − 04

−2.52

D

−185

−164

acccTGATTTAACTTACGTCAAGTGGaaac

5.8

−7.91

activated

gene

STM1594

S

srfB

ssrAB

−14.70

6.14

5.14E − 06

−2.88

D

−58

−37

tgccTGATTTTATGTTGGTCAATCTGtgtg

5.31

−7.5

activated

gene

STM1626

N

trg

methyl-

−13.30

5.46

2.28E − 05

5.72

accepting

chemotaxis

protein III,

ribose and

galactose

sensor

receptor

STM1640

S

ydcF

putative

−11.44

5.63

4.15E − 05

−5.72

inner

membrane

protein

STMI641

L

hrpA

helicase,

−21.19

6.25

4.68E − 07

−20.97

R

−217

−196

gtgcCCCGTTGCTTGTTGACACTTTAttca

4.72

−7.04

ATP-

dependent

STM1642

I

acpD

acyl carrier

−11.32

7.81

4.05E − 06

−4.01

D

−107

−86

tgaaTAAAGTGTCAACAAGCAACGGGgcac

4.72

−7.04

protein

phospho-

diesterase

STM1647

C

ldhA

fermentative

−16.29

5.95

3.65E − 06

−24.42

D

−139

−118

tcatTATATGTATGACTATCAATTATtttt

5.05

−7.29

D-lactate

dehydrogenase,

NAD-dependent

STM1648

O

hslJ

heat shock

−8.34

5.41

2.75E − 04

−5.00

R

−74

−53

ttaaCTATCAGATTACAGAGAATATCaatg

4.11

−6.57

protein hslJ

STM1650

—

STM1650

putative

−5.38

7.56

7.97E − 04

−3.52

reverse

transcriptase

STM1651

C

nifJ

putative

−8.67

6.43

8.87E − 05

−4.97

pyruvate-

flavodoxin

oxidore-

ductase

STM1652

T

ynaF

putative

−20.67

5.01

4.81E − 06

−116.15

R

−282

−261

ttatTGAATTAAACGGTAACATCTCtttt

4.7

−7.02

universal

stress

protein

STM1653

P

STM1653

putative

−10.25

5.85

5.92E − 05

−6.56

membrane

transporter

of cations

STM1657

N

STM1657

putative

−9.41

6.29

6.15E − 05

−4.01

D

−52

−31

caaaAATGTTGAGAAATATCAGCGTCagga

8.58

−10.68

methyl-

accepting

chemotaxis

protein

STM1658

S

ydaL

putative

−28.29

6.75

2.87E − 08

−4.01

Smr domain

STM1659

L

ogt

O-6-

−6.79

6.25

4.20E − 04

−2.92

alkylguanine-

DNA/cysteine-

protein

methyl-

transferase

STM1660

—

fnr

transcrip-

−8.24

5.04

4.11E − 04

−6.55

D

−88

−67

tgttAAAATTGACAAATATCAATTACggct

11.43

−14.93

tional

regulation

of aerobic,

anaerobic

respiration,

osmotic

balance

(CRP family)

STM1688

K

pspC

phage shock

11.96

6.86

7.63E − 06

3.23

R

−45

−24

gggtGGAATCAATCTGAATAAAAAACtatg

6.11

−8.16

protein;

regulatory

gene,

activates

expression

of psp operon

with PspB

STM1706

J

yciH

putative

9.58

5.71

9.91E − 05

4.32

translation

initiation

factor SUI1

STM1732

M

ompW

outer

−6.72

5.07

1.05E − 03

−8.36

R

−172

−151

gttcTAAATTAATCTGGATCAATAAAtgtt

8.33

−10.39

membrane

protein W;

colicin S4

receptor;

putative

transporter

STM1746

—

oppA

ABC

16.43

6.25

2.23E − 06

3.83

R

−290

−269

atttCACATTGTTGATAAGTATTTTCattt

5.36

−7.54

superfamily

(periplasm),

oligopeptide

transport

protein with

chaperone

properties

STM1767

T

narL

response

11.78

6.53

1.22E − 05

2.78

regulator in

two-component

regulatory

system with

NarX (or NarQ),

regulates

anaerobic

respiration and

fermentation

(LuxR/UhpA

familiy)

STM1781

P

ychM

putative

−10.77

6.07

3.49E − 05

−3.33

R

−2.30

−209

acgaAGAATCGATTTCCGCCATGTTCgagc

5.29

−7.49

SulP family

transport

protein

STM1795

E

STM1795

putative

12.42

5.46

3.28E − 05

5.33

R

−302

−281

acatAACATTGATACATGTCGTTATCataa

6.57

−8.6

homologue of

glutamic

dehyrogenase

STM1798

—

ycgR

putative

−14.17

5.94

8.40E − 06

−4.09

D

−267

−246

tggcGATAACGCCGGCAATCAAACCAaaaa

6.66

−8.68

inner

membrane

protein

STM1803

E

dadA

D-amino

10.10

8.96

3.40E − 06

3.16

R

−261

−240

cctcCACATTGAACGGCAAAAAATCGggta

4.58

−6.92

acid

dehydrogenase

subunit

STM1831

G

manY

Sugar

15.20

5.98

5.28E − 06

3.73

R

−146

−125

atccGAAACTGAAAATGATGGATTTAattg

4.99

−7.24

Specific

PTS family,

mannose-

specific

enzyme IIC

STM1832

G

manZ

Sugar

14.15

9.24

1.42E − 07

2.96

D

−277

−256

ttggTTATGCGATGGTTATCAATATGatgc

7.21

−9.2

Specific

PTS family,

mannose-

specific

enzyme IID

STM1915

N

cheZ

chemotactic

−9.59

5.76

9.42E − 05

−3.56

response;

CheY protein

phophatase

STM1916

T

cheY

chemotaxis

−9.32

5.69

1.18E − 04

−3.74

D

−111

−90

agcaGATGTTGGCGAAAATCAGTGCCggac

8.6

−10.7

regulator,

transmits

chemoreceptor

signals to

flagelllar

motor

components

STM1917

N

cheB

methyl

−8.37

5.74

2.00E − 04

−4.33

esterase,

response

regulator for

chemotaxis

(cheA sensor)

STM1918

N

cheR

glutamate

−22.41

8.99

3.40E − 09

−3.32

methyl-

transferase,

response

regulator for

chemotaxis

STM1919

N

cheM

methyl

−18.86

5.13

6.12E − 06

−8.31

accepting

chemotaxis

protein II,

aspartate

sensor-

receptor

STM1920

N

cheW

purine-

−14.43

5.32

1.82E − 05

−4.31

D

−296

−275

gggcATTGTTGTGATCCTGCAAAGCGcggg

4.39

−6.78

binding

chemotaxis

protein;

regulation

STM1921

N

cheA

sensory

−16.27

6.02

3.32E − 06

−4.67

D

−39

−18

ggatATTAGCGATTTTTATCAGACATtttt

4.84

−7.12

histitine

protein

kinase,

transduces

signal

between

chemo-

signal

receptors

and CheB

and CheY

STM1922

N

motB

enables

−15.03

5.33

1.43E − 05

−7.00

R

−177

−156

atgcGCCGCCGATTGCCGTGGAATTTggtc

5.72

−7.84

flagellar

motor

rotation,

linking

torque

machinery

to cell

wall

STM1923

N

motA

proton

−5.97

5.07

1.80E − 03

−10.82

conductor

component

of motor,

torque

generator

STM1932

P

ftnB

ferritin-

−21.51

5.01

3.92E − 06

−21.11

D

−95

−74

tctcGTCTGTCATGCACATCAACACTttct

4.24

−6.67

like

protein

STM1955

—

fliZ

putative

−15.76

5.35

109E − 05

−6.25

D

−331

−310

acagGAAAACCCGTTACATCAACTGCtgga

5.78

−7.9

regulator

of FliA

STM1956

K

fliA

sigma F

−21.86

8.81

5.60E − 09

−5.96

R

−64

−43

acgcAGGGCTGTTTATCGTGAATTCActgt

4.87

−7.15

(sigma 28)

factor of

RNA

polymerase,

transcription

of late

flagellar

genes (class

3a and 3b

operons)

STM1960

N

fliD

flagellar

−15.69

6.81

1.35E − 06

−4.45

R

−82

−61

cttaACTACTGTTTGCAATCAAAAAGgaag

4.63

−6.97

biosynthesis;

filament

capping

protein;

enables

filament

assembly

STM1961

O

fliS

flagellar

−9.80

5.27

1.40E − 04

−5.10

R

−231

−210

acgcCACGCTGAAAAGCCTGACAAAAcagt

4.08

−6.56

biosynthesis;

repressor of

class 3a and

3b operons

(RflA

activity

STM1962

—

fliT

flagellar

−7.66

5.16

5.25E − 04

−6.03

biosynthesis;

possible

export

chaperone

for FliD

STM1971

N

fliH

flagellar

−8.61

6.32

1.01E − 04

−2.94

biosynthesis;

possible

export of

flagellar

proteins

STM1973

N

fliJ

flagellar

−7.71

6.36

1.88E − 04

−4.27

fliJ protein

STM1975

N

fliL

flagellar

−8.94

5.55

1.68E − 04

−2.79

biosynthesis

STM1976

N

fliM

flagellar

−9.19

5.26

1.95E − 04

−3.07

R

−161

−140

aacaAAAACTGATTGCCGCCATTAAAgaga

5.62

−7.76

biosynthesis,

component of

motor switch

and energizing

STM1978

N

fliO

flagellar

−5.21

6.02

1.98E − 03

−2.76

biosynthesis

STM2059

S

yeeX

putative

8.96

6.90

4.79E − 05

2.75

cytoplasmic

protein

STM2183

F

cdd

cytidine/

−17.85

5.47

4.66E − 06

−7.71

R

−157

−136

atttTTCATTGAAGTTTCACAAGTTGcata

5.31

−7.51

deoxycytidine

deaminase

STM2186

E

STM2186

putative

−15.60

5.64

7.43E − 06

−4.18

D

−269

−248

cttcTTTTTTATCGTTAATCTATTTAttat

5.46

−7.63

NADPH-

dependent

glutamate

synthase

beta chain

or related

oxidoreductase

STM2187

F

yeiA

putative

−15.69

5.44

9.74E − 06

−4.05

dihydro-

pyrimidine

dehydrogenase

STM2277

F

nrdA

ribonucleoside

26.74

5.26

8.07E − 07

11.15

D

−60

−39

ggtaGAAAACCACATGAATCAGAGTCtgct

4.2

−6.64

diphosphate

reductase 1,

alpha subunit

STM2278

F

nrdB

ribonucleoside

29.51

5.69

1.92E − 07

9.57

D

−68

−47

tcccATAAAGGATTCACTTCAATGGCatac

6.02

−8.11

diphosphate

reductase 1

beta subunit

STM2279

C

yfaE

putative

6.33

5.30

1.17E − 03

3.37

R

−297

−276

acggTTCGATGATCGGCCTGAATAAAgata

5.02

−7.27

ferredoxin

STM2280

G

STM2280

putative

11.04

6.42

2.06E − 05

4.32

permease

STM2287

—

STM2287

putative

4.59

6.33

3.24E − 03

3.46

R

−279

−258

ggggATAACTGAATATCCCCAATAATaatt

4.46

−6.84

cytoplasmic

protein

STM2314

T

STM2314

putative

−25.76

5.48

6.21E − 07

−6.99

chemotaxis

signal

transduction

protein

STM2315

R

yfbK

putative von

−15.60

9.01

7.88E − 08

−2.84

Willebrand

factor, vWF

type A

domain

STM2316

—

nuoN

NADH

8.29

6.13

1.50E − 04

2.67

R

−334

−313

tggtGCCGGTGATTACCGTGATCTCCacct

4.26

−6.69

dehydrogenase

I chain N

STM2318

C

nuoL

NADH

8.02

7.14

8.05E − 05

2.54

R

−261

−240

tgttTATGCTGATTGGGCTGGAAATCatga

5.57

−7.71

dehydrogenase

I chain L

STM2320

C

nuoJ

NADH

11.27

6.55

1.58E − 05

2.54

dehydrogenase

I chain J

[EC:1.6.5.3]

STM2324

C

nuoF

NADH

9.85

7.93

1.01E − 05

2.60

dehydrogenase

I chain F

STM2325

C

nuoE

NADH

8.07

8.32

3.23E − 05

2.65

dehydrogenase

I chain E

STM2326

C

nuoC

NADH

22.56

6.50

2.04E − 07

3.34

dehydrogenase

I chain C, D

STM2327

C

nuoB

NADH

11.71

6.20

1.86E − 05

2.52

dehydrogenase

I chain B

[EC:1.6.5.3]

STM2334

R

yfbT

putative

18.20

6.34

1.03E − 06

3.49

R

−76

−55

gagcGCGAATGAAATCAATCAAATCAttaa

5.55

−7.7

phosphatase

STM2335

S

yfbU

putative

6.74

5.61

6.87E − 04

3.39

cytoplasmic

protein

STM2337

C

ackA

acetate

−16.97

6.34

1.60E − 06

−3.51

R

−147

−126

tcctGCGCATGATGTTAATCATAAATgtca

4.76

−7.07

kinase A

(propionate

kinase 2)

STM2338

C

pta

phosphotran-

−6.43

5.94

6.96E − 04

−3.17

sacetylase

STM2340

G

STM2340

putative

11.33

5.19

7.42E − 05

6.60

D

−82

−61

gctcAATGAGGCCATTCATCAACTGGaggt

4.18

−6.62

transketolase

STM2341

G

STM2341

putative

23.38

5.42

1.19E − 06

6.47

transketolase

STM2342

S

STM2342

putative

9.98

5.52

9.77E − 05

5.22

R

−276

−255

aaaaAGTATTAAAGAAACTCAATATTgacg

6.82

−8.83

inner

membrane

protein

STM2343

G

STM2343

putative

10.35

6.09

4.30E − 05

3.34

D

−64

−43

tttaAAAGGTGACAATAATGAAAATCatgg

4.64

−6.97

cytoplasmic

protein

STM2409

F

nupC

NUP family,

−15.30

5.45

1.09E − 05

−3.91

D

−347

−326

gtttATTGATAATGATTATCAAGTGCattt

5.87

−7.97

nucleoside

transport

STM2454

K

eutR

putative

−12.08

5.35

4.34E − 05

−5.13

regulator

ethanolamine

operon

(AraC/XylS

family)

STM2455

Q

eutK

putative

−9.27

5.21

1.97E − 04

−6.77

D

−61

−40

aacgGAGGCTGCCAATGATCAATGCCctgg

4.45

−6.83

carboxysome

structural

protein,

ethanolamine

utilization

STM2456

E

eutL

putative

−9.22

5.22

1.99E − 04

−6.68

carboxysome

structural

protein,

ethanolamine

utilization

STM2457

E

eutC

ethanolamine

−16.21

5.56

6.85E − 06

−7.07

ammonia-lyase,

light chain

STM2458

E

eutB

ethanolamine

−17.30

5.54

4.94E − 06

−6.33

D

−315

−294

ccgcATTACTCACGGTCATCAACGCGctga

5.38

−7.56

ammonia-lyase,

heavy chain

STM2459

E

eutA

CPPZ-55

−19.26

5.16

5.24E − 06

−6.17

prophage;

chaperonin

in ethanola-

mine utili-

zation

STM2460

E

eutH

putative

−17.75

5.32

6.09E − 06

−6.29

transport

protein,

ethanolamine

utilization

STM2462

E

eutJ

paral putative

−7.74

5.05

5.52E − 04

−7.30

heatshock

protein

(Hsp70)

STM2463

C

eutE

putative

−18.52

5.34

4.73E − 06

−7.02

R

−64

−43

aaatAGGATTGAACATCATGAATCAAcagg

4.88

−7.15

aldehyde

oxidoreductase

in ethanolamine

utilization

STM2464

Q

eutN

putative

−14.11

5.14

2.65E − 05

−8.00

D

−194

−173

tggaAGAAGTGTTCCCGATCAGCTTCaaag

5.21

−7.42

detox

protein in

ethanolamine

utilization

STM2465

Q

eutM

putative

−28.26

5.11

8.21E − 07

−11.02

R

−250

−229

ctatCGCGCTGTTGGGCCGCTAATTCaggg

4.58

−6.93

detox

protein in

ethanolamine

utilization

STM2466

C

eutD

putative

−15.83

5.11

1.53E − 05

−10.36

phosphotran-

sacetylase in

ethanolamine

utilization

STM2467

E

eutT

putative

−16.88

5.92

3.13E − 06

−6.59

R

−237

−216

cgtgGACGCTGAACTACGACGAAATCgaca

6.89

−8.9

cobalamin

adenosyl-

transferase,

ethanolamine

utilization

STM2468

E

eutQ

putative

−18.58

5.26

5.33E − 06

−7.60

ethanolamine

utilization

protein

STM2469

E

eutP

putative

−20.06

5.13

4.47E − 06

−9.38

R

−247

−226

aaacGGCGATGATCGCTGGCGATTTAgcga

4.71

−7.03

ethanolamine

utilization

protein

STM2470

E

eutS

putative

−10.43

5.05

1.32E − 04

−13.70

R

−154

−133

ttctCTTAGTGATCTACCTCACCTTTtaca

5.95

−8.05

carboxysome

structural

protein,

ethanol

utilization

STM2479

E

aegA

putative

−7.82

7.39

7.90E − 05

−3.37

R

−187

−166

gaaaTAAATTGATCTGCCACAGGTTCtgga

7.26

−9.26

oxidoreductase

STM2530

C

STM2530

putative

−10 14

7.00

1.96E − 05

−3.67

D

−158

−137

ttatGAATTTCATTTAATTTAAAGTTaatg

6.79

−8.8

anaerobic

dimethyl-

sulfoxide

reductase

STM2556

C

hmpA

dihydro-

15.99

5.95

4.09E − 06

3.01

R

−95

−74

agatGCATTTGATATACATCATTAGAtttt

6.24

−8.3

pteridine

reductase 2

and nitric

oxide

dioxygenase

activity

STM2558

E

cadB

ABC family,

−6.95

5.19

1.01E − 03

−6.43

D

−219

−198

tatgTTAATTCAAAAAAATCAATCTAtcag

6.78

−8.8

lysine/

cadaverine

transport

protein

STM2559

E

cadA

lysine

−10.67

5.18

1.02E − 04

−5.58

R

−221

−200

tcgtCAGTCTGATCATCCTGATGTTCtacg

5.74

−7.86

decarboxy-

lase 1

STM2646

R

yfiD

putative

−26.43

5.69

3.54E − 07

−5.08

D

−179

−158

ggttTTTATTGATTTAAATCAAAGAAtgaa

10.76

−13.71

formate

acetyltrans-

ferase

STM2733

—

STM2733

Fels-2

−5.44

8.92

4.26E − 04

−2.72

prophage:

similar to

E. coli

retron Ec67

STM2786

S

STM2786

tricarboxylic

19.84

5.84

1.38E − 06

8.21

transport

STM2787

—

STM2787

tricarboxylic

10.54

9.96

1.01E − 06

6.89

transport

STM2788

S

STM2788

tricarboxylic

11.85

5.46

4.19E − 05

3.46

R

−107

−86

ttgaCCGGCTGCTTGATGTCACCTTAcctc

4.26

−6.68

transport

STM2795

S

ygaU

putative

−3.59

5.59

1.31E − 02

−2.98

D

−55

−34

aggtGAATATGGGACTTTTCAATTTTgtaa

5.43

−7.6

LysM

domain

STM2851

C

hycC

hydrogenase

−5.41

8.55

5.07E − 04

−3.49

3, membrane

subunit

(part of

FHL complex)

STM2855

O

hypB

hydrogenase-3

−14.31

6.06

6.74E − 06

−3.12

R

−143

−122

cataGAGATTGATGAAACTGAAGATTaatg

9.23

−11.47

accessory

protein,

assembly of

metallocenter

STM2856

O

hypC

putative

−9.09

6.18

8.40E − 05

−2.56

hydrogenase

expression/

formation

protein

STM2857

O

hypD

putative

−8.01

5.29

3.76E − 04

−2.97

hydrogenase

expression/

formation

protein

STM2871

U

prgK

cell

−15.27

7.06

1.15E − 06

−3.25

invasion

protein;

lipoprotein,

may link

inner and

outer

membranes

STM2872

—

prgJ

cell

−9.60

5.35

1.43E − 04

−4.65

R

−344

−323

agccCACTTTAATTTAACGTAAATAAggaa

5.69

−7.82

invasion

protein;

cytoplasmic

STM2873

—

prgI

cell

−12.42

5.80

2.13E − 05

−4.16

R

−83

−62

agccCACTTTAATTTAACGTAAATAAggaa

5.69

−7.82

invasion

protein;

cytoplasmic

STM2874

—

prgH

cell

−16.99

6.31

1.65E − 06

−3.85

invasion

protein

STM2877

M

iagB

cell

−4.52

5.49

5.01E − 03

−3.55

R

−86

−65

ccgcTTGATTAAATTACGGTAAAATCtgag

4.68

−7

invasion

protein

STM2886

R

sicA

surface

−10.24

5.19

1.24E − 04

−2.80

D

−57

−36

ggagTAAGTAATGGATTATCAAAATAatgt

4.34

−6.75

presentation

of antigens;

secretory

proteins

STM2890

U

spaP

surface

−5.39

5.53

2.17E − 03

−4.27

D

−88

−67

cttaGGCGTTGAGATCCATGAATGGCtgag

4.61

−6.95

presentation

of antigens;

secretory

proteins

STM2891

N

spaO

surface

−8.43

5.86

1.72E − 04

−3.67

presentation

of antigens;

secretory

proteins

STM2892

—

invJ

surface

−7.06

5.22

7.34E − 04

−5.51

D

−239

−218

tttaGAACTCCAGATTATACAAATTCagga

4.22

−6.66

presentation

of antigens;

secretory

proteins

STM2893

—

invI

surface

−12.02

5.46

3.91E − 05

−4.44

R

−190

−169

gcttTTCATTGACTTGGGAGAATATCgtcc

6.09

−8.16

presentation

of antigens;

secretory

proteins

STM2894

N

invC

surface

−6.62

6.04

5.54E − 04

−2.79

presentation

of antigens;

secretory

proteins

STM2895

—

invB

surface

−10.44

5.50

7.85E − 05

−3.88

R

−267

−246

ccgcTAATTTGATGGATCTCATTACActta

8.41

−10.48

presentation

of antigens;

secretory

proteins

STM2896

U

invA

invasion

−6.84

5.81

5.50E − 04

−3.34

protein

STM2897

—

invE

invasion

−5.52

6.12

1.40E − 03

−3.09

R

−29

−8

tccgGTATTTCATTTTCCAGAATATTgtcc

4.35

−6.76

protein

STM2898

N

invG

invasion

−6.82

5.89

5.30E − 04

−3.48

D

−126

−105

cacaTTTTTCTAGTGAGATCAAAGAGctga

7.49

−9.49

protein;

outer

membrane

STM2899

K

invF

invasion

−5.45

5.63

1.95E − 03

−3.57

protein

STM2983

—

ygdI

putative

−7.97

6.00

2.09E − 04

−3.64

lipoprotein

STM3019

I

yqeF

putative

10.03

6.84

2.46E − 05

2.58

R

−249

−228

ctatTGATTTGCTGTGGAACAAGAAAacgc

4.54

−6.9

acetyl-CoA

acetyl-

transferase

STM3131

S

STM3131

putative

−17.74

9.67

1.07E − 08

−7.24

R

−77

−56

actgCCACCTGATCAACAAGGAGATAaatc

5.09

−7.32

cytoplasmic

protein

STM3136

G

STM3136

putative D-

9.94

5.61

8.96E − 05

2.88

mannonate

oxidoreductase

STM3138

N

STM3138

putative

−8.98

5.43

1.84E − 04

−4.76

methyl-

accepting

chemotaxis

protein

STM3155

—

STM3155

putative

−7.23

7.42

1.31E − 04

−2.81

R

−78

−57

gtatACCACTGATCGTAAAGGATATTtagt

7.28

−9.28

cytoplasmic

protein

STM3216

N

STM316

putative

−15.35

7.19

9.30E − 07

−3.37

R

−280

−259

tctaCCTATTAATAGGTATAAACTCAgtta

5.59

−7.73

methyl-

accepting

chemotaxis

protein

STM3217

T

aer

aerotaxis

−12.23

5.32

4.29E − 05

−4.77

D

−238

−217

aaagGTTGTCCACGCTAAACAATTTCataa

8.02

−10.04

sensor

receptor,

senses

cellular

redox state

or proton

motive force

STM3225

E

ygjU

putative

17.69

9.71

1.04E − 08

3.68

dicarboxylate

permease

STM3238

S

yhaN

putative

−6.92

6.10

4.20E − 04

−3.18

R

−146

−125

aaggCGCTTCGTTGTACCTGATTATTatta

4.55

−6.9

inner

membrane

protein

STM3240

E

tdcG

L-serine

−16.72

5.57

5.68E − 06

−4.80

R

−249

−228

ggatGCGATTGAACATCCGGAAAACTaccc

6.02

−8.11

deaminase

STM3241

C

tdcE

pyruvate

−9.34

10.00

2.95E − 06

−2.66

formate-

lyase 4/2-

ketobutyrate

formate-

lyase

STM3242

C

tdcD

propionate

−14.83

7.09

1.35E − 06

−4.10

R

−147

−126

tgacCATCCTGAATATTGTCTACAAAttgt

4.53

−6.89

kinase/

acetate

kinase II,

anaerobic

STM3245

K

tdcA

transcrip-

−17.03

5.41

6.59E − 06

−6.04

D

−239

−218

cctgTTTTTTGATTGAAATCAGGCTAagtt

8.48

−10.57

tional

activator

of tdc

operon

(LysR

family)

STM3248

I

garR

tartronate

15.78

5.93

4.53E − 06

4.16

semialdehyde

reductase

(TSAR)

STM3273

I

yhbT

putative

−9.33

5.49

1.43E − 04

−2.71

D

−237

−216

acgcAAAATTGTTAACGAACAGGGATttta

5.52

−7.68

lipid

carrier

protein

STM3274

O

yhbU

putative

−10.06

5.51

9.38E − 05

−10.68

R

−103

−82

taaaATCCCTGTTCGTTAACAATTTTgcgt

5.52

−7.68

protease

STM3275

—

yhbV

putative

−13.35

5.95

1.16E − 05

−10.88

protease

STM3334

F

STM3334

putative

−8.46

6.65

8.47E − 05

−2.58

D

−277

−256

agtgATTATTGCCGACTATCTGTTGAaccg

4

−6.5

cytosine

deaminase

STM3338

G

nanT

MFS family,

−19.92

5.67

1.83E − 06

−3.02

sialic acid

transport

protein

STM3545

R

yhhX

putative

14.13

5.91

8.84E − 06

3.21

oxidoreductase

STM3547

—

STM3547

putative

54.21

5.60

7.77E − 09

6.06

transcrip-

tional

regulator

of sugar

metabolism

STM3548

—

STM3548

putative

40.36

5.24

9.82E − 08

9.29

R

−327

−306

gcttGCTTATGATGGCACACAATTCAtcta

4.98

−7.24

cytoplasmic

protein

STM3549

S

STM3549

putative

13.96

5.28

2.25E − 05

7.22

inner

membrane

protein

STM3550

R

STM3550

putative

22.45

5.17

2.34E − 06

7.40

phospho-

triesterase

STM3576

P

zntA

P-type

9.90

5.54

9.92E − 05

2.55

R

−261

−240

cgacGCTGCTGTTCATCGGCAATATCgtct

5.02

−7.27

ATPase

family,

Pb/Cd/Zn/Hg

transporting

ATPase

[EC:3.6.3.33.6.3.5]

STM3577

N

tcp

methyl-

−22.22

5.71

9.23E − 07

−5.64

R

−126

−105

agcgTGATTTGATGTAAGGTTAATTTttat

6.53

−8.56

accepting

transmembrane

citrate/phenol

chemoreceptor

STM3598

E

STM3598

putative L-

−8.27

6.47

1.13E − 04

−3.70

asparaginase

STM3599

R

STM3599

putative

−7.19

5.11

7.38E − 04

−9.14

D

−108

−87

cacaATAGGTTACGTCCCTCAATGTAaagc

4.29

−6.71

inner

membrane

protein

STM3600

G

STM3600

putative

−9.76

5.07

1.77E − 04

−12.63

R

−322

−301

aacgCGCGTTAAACTTCCTGAAAAAAtatg

5

−7.25

sugar

kinases,

ribokinase

family

STM3601

M

STM3601

putative

−26.75

5.09

1.12E − 06

−11.94

R

−266

−245

cgcaACAGTTGATTGTCGGCGATAAAatac

7.59

−9.59

phosphosugar

isomerase

STM3611

T

yhjH

putative

−16.54

5.11

1.23E − 05

−7.89

Diguanylate

cyclase/

phospho-

diesterase

domain 3

STM3626

E

dppF

ABC

9.03

5.90

1.14E − 04

5.86

superfamily

(atp_bind),

dipeptide

transport

protein

STM3627

E

dppD

ABC

8.88

5.24

2.36E − 04

7.65

D

−45

−24

ggcgTTATTAAATGTAGATCAATTATcggt

8.18

−10.23

superfamily

(atp_bind),

dipeptide

transport

protein

STM3628

E

dppC

ABC

16.86

5.71

4.35E − 06

4.09

superfamily

(membrane),

dipeptide

transport

protein 2

STM3629

E

dppB

ABC

11.76

5.16

6.34E − 05

12.45

D

−55

−34

ttcgGGTTATGTTGCAGTTCATTCTCcgac

4.22

−6.66

superfamily

(membrane),

dipeptide

transport

protein 1

STM3630

E

dppA

ABC

9.06

5.06

2.56E − 04

9.90

superfamily

(peri_perm),

dipeptide

transport

protein

STM3690

—

STM3690

putative

−15.85

9.97

2.15E − 08

−5.67

R

−305

−284

ccgcAAAATTAAATAACATTATCATCcctg

4.96

−7.22

inner

membrane

lipoprotein

STM3692

C

lldP

LctP

9.84

5.02

1.81E − 04

16.00

D

−160

−139

tgtcATTATCCATACACAACAATATTggca

6.37

−8.41

transporter,

L-lactate

permease

STM3693

K

lldR

putative

12.30

5.04

5.98E − 05

30.60

transcrip-

tional

regulator

for lct

operon

(GntR

family)

STM3694

C

lldD

L-lactate

27.93

5.02

1.05E − 06

28.33

dehydrogenase

STM3695

J

yibK

putative

9.64

9.95

2.31E − 06

2.95

tRNA/rRNA

methyl-

transferase

STM3708

E

tdh

threonine

7.11

6.53

2.66E − 04

3.16

3-dehydrogenase

STM3709

H

kbl

2-amino-3-

12.63

6.75

6.02E − 06

2.86

D

−298

−277

taacGATATTGCTGCCGATAAAGCCCgcgc

5.12

−7.34

ketobutyrate

CoA ligase

(glycine

acetyl-

transferase)

STM3750

G

yicJ

putative

−13.67

7.06

2.44E − 06

−2.67

GPH

family

transport

protein

STM3801

G

dsdX

putative

14.70

7.68

6.70E − 07

3.42

R

−22

−1

gcacGCTGCTGATCAGCATCGTGTT

5.63

−7.77

Gnt

family

transport

protein

STM3802

E

dsdA

D-serine

17.71

5.05

9.69E − 06

7.90

deaminase

(dehydratase)

STM3808

—

ibpB

small heat

6.72

5.53

7.44E − 04

2.85

shock

protein

STM3820

P

STM3820

putative

−12.03

6.07

1.83E − 05

−5.87

D

−165

−144

tgtaATTATTGATACCAATCAATATCcatg

11

−14.14

cytochrome

c peroxidase

STM3831

R

yidA

putative

19.09

7.62

1.03E − 07

4.38

D

−220

−199

acggTATTTTCTGTTTGATTAATGAGgtta

7.22

−9.21

hydrolase

of the

HAD

superfamily

STM3861

M

glmS

L-glutamine:

8.04

6.11

1.80E − 04

2.89

R

−24

−3

cgcgCAGCGTGATGTAGCTGAAATCCt

4.19

−6.63

D-fructose-

6-phosphate

aminotrans-

ferase

STM3862

M

glmU

N-acetyl

7.97

5.70

2.67E − 04

2.78

glucosamine-

1-phosphate

uridyl-

transferase

and

glucosamine-

1-phosphate

acetyl

transferase

STM3909

E

ilvC

ketol-acid

10.62

5.70

5.68E − 05

3.38

reductoiso-

merase

STM4004

H

hemN

O2-independent

10.06

5.66

8.07E − 05

3.82

copropor-

phyrinogen

III oxidase

STM4007

E

glnA

glutamine

19.35

5.32

3.91E − 06

5.97

synthetase

STM4034

O

fdhE

putative

9.93

6.01

5.99E − 05

3.12

formate

dehydrogenase

formation

protein ?

Mn_fn

STM4035

C

fdoI

formate

8.84

5.80

1.40E − 04

3.60

dehydrogenase,

cytochrome

B556 (FDO)

subunit

STM4036

C

fdoH

formate

21.65

8.93

5.02E − 09

2.85

dehydrogenase-

O, Fe-S subunit

STM4037

C

fdoG

formate

7.75

5.52

3.62E − 04

2.73

dehydrogenase

STM4062

G

pfkA

6-phospho-

12.62

9.16

4.23E − 07

2.97

R

−181

−160

cattTGGCCTGACCTGAATCAATTCAgcag

5.19

−7.4

fructokinase I

STM4078

G

yneB

putative

15.91

7.71

3.57E − 07

2.57

R

−51

−30

aagaATGGCTGATTTAGATGATATTAaaga

5.53

−7.68

fructose-1,

6-bisphosphate

aldolase

STM4085

G

glpX

unknown

6.62

5.50

8.16E − 04

3.20

R

−60

−39

ctacGAGTTTGTTATGAGACGAGAACttgc

5.56

−7.71

function in

glycerol

metabolism

STM4109

G

talC

putative

19.34

8.13

4.38E − 08

4.72

D

−221

−200

tcatTATGCTGACGCTTAACAAACACgccg

4.79

−7.09

transaldolase

STM4110

G

ptsA

General PTS

7.39

6.01

3.14E − 04

2.66

D

−257

−236

tactGGATTTTTGTAATATCAGTATAaaaa

5.49

−7.65

family,

enzyme I

STM4113

G

frwB

PTS system

5.65

5.64

1.62E − 03

2.89

D

−83

−62

tttaGATTTTGAGATGAATTAAGCGAggaa

4.79

−7.09

fructose-like

IIB component

1

STM4119

C

ppc

phospho-

9.54

5.26

1.62E − 04

3.40

enolpyruvate

carboxylase

STM4126

C

udhA

soluble

13.35

6.46

6.04E − 06

3.17

pyridine

nucleotide

transhydro-

genase

STM4229

G

malE

ABC

56.71

9.34

3.52E − 13

7.00

superfamily

(bind_prot)

maltose

transport

protein,

substrate

recognition

for transport

and chemotaxis

STM4231

G

lamB

phage lambda

26.26

5.36

7.19E − 07

11.38

receptor

protein;

maltose

high-

affinity

receptor,

facilitates

diffusion of

maltose and

maltoseoligo-

saccharides

STM4240

S

yjbJ

putative

−6.01

5.16

1.64E − 03

−4.24

cytoplasmic

protein

STM4277

P

nrfA

nitrite

−7.36

5.12

6.58E − 04

−3.09

R

−198

−177

acttACAATTGATTAAAGACAACATTttaa

11.55

−15.16

reductase

periplasmic

cytochrome

c(552)

STM4278

—

nrfB

formate-

−7.18

7.31

1.46E − 04

−3.69

D

−262

−241

gtttGAATATGCAACAAATCAACGCGgaga

6.12

−8.19

dependent

nitrite

reductase;

a penta-

haeme

cytochrome c

STM4298

G

melA

alpha-

25.01

5.44

7.96E − 07

7.21

galactosidase

STM4299

G

melB

OPH family,

24.57

5.24

1.29E − 06

6.66

D

−327

−306

cgatGATGCAGACCAACATCAACGTGcaaa

4.94

−7.21

melibiose

permease II

STM4300

C

FumB

fumarase B

9.38

5.99

8.37E − 05

2.69

R

−216

−195

tgccGGGTTTGATTGGCGTGAGCGTCtcct

4.17

−6.62

(fumarate

hydratase

class I),

anaerobic

isozyme

STM4301

R

dcuB

Dcu family,

12.46

5.83

2.01E − 05

3.38

R

−155

−134

ctggCGCATTGAATATTCGCCATTTCctga

5.55

−7.7

anaerobic C4-

dicarboxylate

transporter

STM4305

—

STM4305

putative

−15.43

5.16

1.62E − 05

−10.14

anaerobic

dimethyl

sulfoxide

reductase,

subunit A

STM4306

C

STM4306

putative

−7.45

5.19

5.86E − 04

−7.59

R

−65

−44

cttaAGGAGTGATGTACGATGAAACAgtat

4.33

−6.73

anaerobic

dimethyl

sulfoxide

reductase,

subunit B

STM4307

R

STM4307

putative

−13.21

9.88

1.33E − 07

−2.90

anaerobic

dimethyl

sulfoxide

reductase,

subunit C

STM4308

R

STM4308

putative

−7.84

6.73

1.27E − 04

−2.55

component of

anaerobic

dehydrogenases

STM4398

E

cycA

APC family,

13.44

6.79

3.81E − 06

2.54

D

−151

−130

gccgATTCTTACCTAATATCGATGAGtcct

5.02

−7.27

D-alanine/

D-serine/

glycine

transport

protein

STM4399

D

ytfE

putative

7.64

6.16

2.31E − 04

2.96

cell

morphogenesis

STM4439

C

cybC

cytochrome

23.97

7.61

1.92E − 08

4.26

R

−317

−296

attcTGGGTTGAAAATGGTGAAATCCagta

5.06

−7.3

b(562)

STM4452

F

nrdD

anaerobic

−12.74

6.51

7.62E − 06

−3.17

R

−304

−283

ttttTACCTTGTTCTACATCAATAAAattg

7.97

−9.99

ribonucleo-

side-

triphosphate

reductase

STM4462

—

yjgG

putative

−5.83

5.39

1.64E − 03

−3.63

cytoplasmic

protein

STM4463

E

STM4463

putative

−8.53

5.33

2.64E − 04

−5.52

arginine

repressor

STM4469

E

argI

ornithine

−12.54

9.04

5.08E − 07

−3.36

carbamoyl-

transferase

1

STM4510

M

STM4510

putative

−6.50

5.16

1.14E − 03

−6.35

D

−115

−94

gcatTTTTTATATACACATCAAGTTGatag

6.56

−8.61

aspartate

racemase

STM4511

K

yjiE

putative

−8.28

5.18

3.54E − 04

−6.79

transcrip-

tional

regulator,

LysR family

STM4512

—

iadA

isoaspartyl

−16.84

5.28

8.66E − 06

−6.59

R

−75

−54

gcagCTTATTGTTTAATAAGGAGTTAtcat

4.52

−6.88

dipeptidase

STM4513

S

yjiG

putative

−12.81

5.10

4.53E − 05

−8.61

permease

STM4514

—

yjiH

putative

−31.77

6.17

4.45E − 08

−6.56

R

−338

−317

gcgtGAAATTGACTAACGTCAAATTTattt

9.1

−11.31

inner

membrane

protein

STM4526

V

hsdR

endonuclease

−10.25

5.85

5.93E − 05

−3.28

R

−153

−132

attgTTCGTTGATCACACACAATATGaagt

5.93

−8.02

R, host

restriction

STM4533

N

tsr

methyl-

−4.07

6.18

6.19E − 03

−2.75

D

−301

−280

cgcgTAAAGTTAGGTAAATCAGTGAGtggt

7.31

−9.31

accepting

chemotaxis

protein I,

serine

sensor

receptor

STM4535

G

STM4535

putative PTS

18.00

6.01

1.87E − 06

8.22

D

−179

−158

agaaCTTATCGAGCAAGATCAACAGTttta

4.23

−6.66

permease

STM4536

G

STM4536

putative PTS

15.55

5.53

8.94E − 06

4.50

permease

STM4537

G

STM4537

putative PTS

29.73

6.56

3.04E − 08

6.57

R

−172

−151

gttaGCGGATGAAATGACTCAACTTCggga

5.44

−7.61

permease

STM4538

G

STM4538

putative PTS

12.87

5.17

4.03E − 05

7.25

permease

STM4539

M

STM4539

putative

7.10

5.07

8.07E − 04

8.20

R

−277

−256

cggcCTCCATGATTGATATCACCATTccca

5.1

−7.33

glucosamine-

fructose-6-

phosphate

amino-

transferase

STM4540

—

STM4540

putative

10.51

5.26

9.95E − 05

4.89

glucosamine

fructose-6-

phosphate

amino-

transferase

STM4561

R

osmY

hyper-

−11.35

5.80

3.54E − 05

−5.19

D

−163

−142

tcacGAATGTGATGCCAGTCATTGACttca

4.12

−6.59

osmotically

inducible

periplasmic

protein,

RpoS-

dependent

stationary

phase gene

STM4565

O

yjjW

pyruvate

−15.96

9.55

3.30E − 08

−3.71

D

−34

−13

gcgcTTTAGTCAGTAAGATCATTGCGtttt

5.28

−7.48

formate

lyase

activating

enzyme

STM4566

—

yjjI

putative

−20.43

5.09

4.43E − 06

−17.28

R

−181

−160

actgTAATGAGATCTGAATCAAATTAtccc

4.68

−7

cytoplasmic

protein

STM4567

F

deoC

2-deoxyribose-

−6.83

6.15

4.34E − 04

−2.91

D

−184

−163

gggaTAATTTGATTCAGATCTCATTAcagt

4.68

−7

5-phosphate

aldolase

STM4568

F

deoA

thymidine

−8.83

6.49

7.51E − 05

−2.76

phosphorylase

^aLocation of the open reading frame (ORF) in the S. Typhimurium LT2 genome.

^bFunctional category assigned to the gene by the National Center for Biotechnology Information, Cluster of Orthologous Genes (COGs). The designations of functional categories are as follows: C, energy production and conversion, D, cell cycle control and mitosis, E, amino acid metabolism and transport, F, nucleotide metabolism and transport, G, carbohydrate metabolism and transport, H, coenzyme metabolism and transport, I, lipid metabolism and transport, J, translation, K, transcription, L,

#replication, recombination, and repair, M, cell wall/membrane/envelope biogenesis, N, Cell motility, O, post-translational modification, protein turnover, chaperone functions, P, inorganic ion transport and metabolism, Q, secondary metabolites biosynthesis, transport, and catabolism, R, general functional prediction only (typically, prediction of biochemical activity), S, function unknown, T, signal transduction mechanisms, U, intracellular trafficking and secretion, V, defense mechanisms, -, not in COGs.

^cRespective gene name or symbol.

^dFunctional classification according to the KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) database.

^eThe numerical value of t for the t test (statistical method).

^fThe degrees of freedom employed for the analysis of each gene.

^gThe probability associated with the t test for each gene.

^hRatio between the expression level of the fnr mutant relative to the wild-type.

ⁱThe strand on which the motif has been localized. R, reverse; D, direct; NA, not available in the Regulatory Sequence Analysis Tools (RSAT) database (the locus identity was not recognized), and a blank cell indicates that no motif was present.

^jThe starting position of the putative motif. The positions are relative to the region searched and span from −300 to +50 relative to the starting ATG.

^kThe ending position of the putative motif. The positions are relative to the region searched and span from −300 to +50 relative to the starting ATG.

^lThe sequence of the HIGHEST RANKING putative motif (capitalized letters) and 4 base pairs (bps) flanking either side of the region (lower case letters). A blank cell indicates that no motif was present. All of the sequences are reported from the 5′ to the 3′ end of the ORF (Open Reading Frame) analyzed.

^mThe score indicating the similarity of the motif to the information matrix. The cutoff used was a score higher than 4.00 or a In(P) lower than −6.5.

ⁿThe natural logarithm of the probability that the putative motif is randomly similar to the information matrix. The cutoff used was a score higher than 4.00 or a In(P) lower than −6.5.

Claims

1. A pharmaceutical composition comprising an attenuated enterobacterium comprising an attenuating mutation in the fnr gene in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

2. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein the attenuating mutation is an attenuating deletion mutation.

3. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein the attenuated enterobacterium is an attenuated Salmonella.

4. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 3, wherein the attenuated Salmonella is an attenuated S. enterica serovar Typhimurium.

5. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein the attenuated enterobacterium is an attenuated Shigella.

6. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein the attenuated enterobacterium is an attenuated Escherichia coli.

7. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 6, wherein the attenuated E. coli is an attenuated E. coli strain O157:H7.

8. An attenuated enterobacterium comprising an attenuating mutation in the fnr gene and a heterologous nucleic acid sequence encoding a foreign antigen.

9. The attenuated enterobacterium of claim 8, wherein the attenuating mutation is an attenuating deletion mutation.

10. The attenuated enterobacterium of claim 8, wherein the attenuated enterobacterium is an attenuated Salmonella.

11. The attenuated enterobacterium of claim 10, wherein the attenuated Salmonella is an attenuated S. enterica serovar Typhimurium.

12. The attenuated enterobacterium of claim 8, wherein the attenuated enterobacterium is an attenuated Shigella.

13. The attenuated enterobacterium of claim 8, wherein the attenuated enterobacterium is an attenuated Escherichia coli.

14. The attenuated enterobacterium of claim 13, wherein the attenuated E. coli is an attenuated E. coli strain O157:H7.

15. The attenuated enterobacterium of claim 8, wherein the heterologous nucleic acid sequence is incorporated into the bacterial genomic nucleic acid.

16. The attenuated enterobacterium of claim 9, wherein the heterologous nucleic acid sequence is incorporated into the deleted FNR region.

17. The attenuated enterobacterium of claim 8, wherein the heterologous nucleic acid sequence is incorporated into a plasmid.

18. A pharmaceutical composition comprising the attenuated enterobacterium of claim 8 in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

19. A method of inducing an immune response in a subject comprising administering to the subject an immunogenically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition of claim 1.

20. The method of claim 19, wherein an immune response is induced against one or more Salmonella spp.

21. The method of claim 20, wherein an immune response is induced against S. enterica serovar Typhimurium.

22. The method of claim 19, wherein an immune response is induced against one or more Shigella spp.

23. The method of claim 19, wherein an immune response is induced against one or more E. coli spp.

24. The method of claim 23, wherein an immune response is induced against E. coli strain O157:H7.

25. A method of inducing an immune response in a subject comprising administering to the subject an immunogenically effective amount of the attenuated enterobacterium of claim 8.

26. The method of claim 25, wherein the immune response is induced against the foreign antigen and the enterobacterium.

27. The method of claim 26, wherein an immune response is induced against one or more Salmonella spp.

28. The method of claim 27, wherein an immune response is induced against S. enterica serovar Typhimurium.

29. The method of claim 26, wherein an immune response is induced against one or more Shigella spp.

30. The method of claim 26, wherein an immune response is induced against one or more E. coli spp.

31. The method of claim 30, wherein an immune response is induced against E. coli strain O157:H7.