HK1237369A1 - Chemical reprogramming of human glial cells into neurons for brain and spinal cord repair - Google Patents

Abstract

Provided are methods and compositions from reprogramming human glial cells into human neurons. The reprogramming is achieved using combinations of compounds that can modify signaling via Transforming growth factor beta(TGF-β), Bone morphogenetic protein(BMP), glycogen synthase kinase 3(GSK-3), and γ-secretase/Notch pathways. The reprogramming is demonstrated using groups of three or four compounds that are chosen from the group thiazovivin , LDN193189, SB431542, TTNPB, CHIR99021, DAPT, VPA, SAG, purmorphamine. Reprogramming is demonstrated using the group Of LDN193189/CHIR99021/DAPT, the group of B431542/ CHIR99021/DAPT, the group of LDN193189/DAPT SB431542, the group of LDN193189/ CHIR99021/ SB431542, a three drug combination of SB431542/ CHIR99021/DAPT. Reprogramming using functional analogs of the compounds is also provided, as are pharmaceutical formulations that contain the drug combinations.

Description

Chemical reprogramming of human glial cells into neural cells for brain and spinal cord repair

Cross Reference to Related Applications

This application claims priority to U.S. provisional application No. 62/084,365 filed on 25/11/2014 and U.S. provisional application No. 62/215828 filed on 9/2015, the respective disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference.

Statement regarding federally sponsored research

The invention was made with government support under contracts number MH083911 and AG045656 awarded by the national institutes of health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

Technical Field

The present disclosure relates generally to the prevention and treatment of conditions associated with glial scar tissue, and more particularly to compositions and methods comprising small molecules for converting internal glial cells into functional neurons for brain and spinal cord repair.

Background

Regeneration of functional neurons in neurodegenerative diseases or after nerve injury remains a major challenge in the field of nerve repair. Current efforts have focused primarily on cell replacement therapy using exogenous cells derived from embryonic stem cells or induced pluripotent stem cells (Buhnemann et al, 2006; Emborg et al, 2013; Nagai et al, 2010; Nakamura and Okano, 2013; Oki et al, 2012; Sahni and Kessler, 2010). Despite the great potential, this cell transplantation approach faces significant obstacles in clinical applications, such as potential immune injections, tumorigenesis and differentiation uncertainty (Lee et al, 2013; Liu et al, 2013 b; Lukovic et al, 2014). Furthermore, while previous studies have shown that astrocytes can be directly converted into functional neurons in vitro (Guo et al, 2014; Heinrich et al, 2010) and in vivo (Grande et al, 2013; Torper et al, 2013; Guo et al, 2014), and that astrocytes can be converted into neuroblasts and subsequently differentiated into neuronal cells in a stabbed mouse brain (Niu et al, 2013) or spinal cord (Su et al, 2014), these methods have the significant disadvantage of requiring viral infection in the brain. Thus, these previous methods require the performance of complex brain surgery, intracranial injection of viral particles, and the considerable risks associated with these steps. Thus, there remains an ongoing and unmet need for new compositions and methods for regenerating functional neurons in the central or peripheral nervous system without the need to introduce exogenous reprogrammed cells or viral constructs into human subjects.

Disclosure of Invention

The present disclosure provides compositions and methods for chemically reprogramming glial cells to neurons. The present disclosure differs greatly from previous approaches, at least in part, because it involves reprogramming of glial cells using chemically synthesized compounds. Thus, it does not include the associated risks of introducing foreign genes, viral vectors, or engineered cells into a patient, nor does it require manipulation of stem cells or other pluripotent or somatic cells in culture, such as fibroblasts, to differentiate or reverse differentiate them into neurons or otherwise prepare the cells for administration to a subject. In contrast, the present disclosure includes reprogramming glial cells that are already present in the nervous system of an individual, thereby converting the glial cells into neurons using a combination of small molecules described more fully below. It is desirable that the compositions and methods provide a convenient and safe method for treating various nerve injuries or neurodegenerative diseases involving, for example, reactive glial cells or glial scars. One skilled in the art will recognize that glial scars may result from many causes known in the art, and that they typically involve astrocytosis following injury or disease processes in the central and peripheral nervous systems, including the brain and spinal cord. Active astrocytes are the major cellular component of glial scars, followed by NG2 glial cells and microglia. Thus, in embodiments, the present disclosure includes transforming astrocytes into neurons by chemically-induced reprogramming of astrocytes. Similar chemical reprogramming methods can be used to convert NG2 glial cells or microglia or other cell types surrounding cerebral blood vessels into neurons.

As is apparent from the description, figures, and data presented in this disclosure, we have developed in vitro and in vivo data that demonstrate the reprogramming of pre-existing, differentiated glial cells into neurons. In particular, our data indicate that sequential application of small molecules as described herein results in reprogramming of a large fraction (-70%) of human astrocytes into neuronal cells in vitro. In addition, these small molecule-reprogrammed human neurons can survive in culture for more than five months and show robust synaptic activity. In addition, injection of human astrocyte-transformed neurons into the mouse brain indicates that human neurons can integrate into the local brain circuit. Thus, the data presented in this disclosure collectively indicate that chemical reprogramming of human astrocytes into functional neurons in an injured or diseased brain in an in vivo manner can now be achieved without the need to introduce individual cultured cells or viruses or other expression vectors or foreign genes, a never-before-existing approach.

The present disclosure includes demonstration that glial cells can be reprogrammed into neurons by the combination of compounds that act together on signals including, but not limited to, transforming growth factor beta (TGF- β), Bone Morphogenic Protein (BMP), glycogen synthase kinase 3(GSK-3), and gamma-secretase/Notch pathways. In general, the disclosure includes administering to an individual in need thereof a compound capable of inhibiting these pathways. In one embodiment, the disclosure includes administering a combination of compounds selected from the group consisting of thiazovivin, LDN193189, SB431542, TTNPB, CHIR99021, DAPT, VPA, SAG, 2,6, 9-trisubstituted purines or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof or analogs of these compounds or compounds having the same or similar functional effect such that their administration reprograms glial cells to neurons, and various combinations of the foregoing compounds. In one approach, the compound administered to the individual comprises at least three compounds selected from the four compounds consisting of the core (which is not intended to be bound by any particular theory), which is believed to be required to achieve reprogramming. These compounds are SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT, which may also be substituted with functional analogs as described below. In one approach, the present disclosure includes the use of any of the following combinations: i) LDN193189/CHIR99021/DAP, ii) SB431542/CHIR 99021/DAPT; iii) LDN193189/DAPT/SB431542, and iv) LDN193189/CHIR99021/SB 431542. In one embodiment, three pharmaceutical compositions of SB431542/CHIR99021/DAPT are used.

The compositions can be administered to an individual in need thereof in any combination, and can include simultaneous administration of a combination of at least two compounds, and can include sequential administration of any of the compounds and combinations, specific embodiments of which are described more fully below. In certain aspects, the introduction of a composition comprising LDN193189 and SB431542 into a subject can be performed as an initial administration, and the introduction of a composition comprising CHIR99021 and DAPT into a subject can be performed in a subsequent administration.

The compositions may be administered by any acceptable route and formulation, including but not necessarily limited to oral, intranasal, intravenous, and intracranial methods. In one aspect, the composition is administered orally.

In certain embodiments, the methods of the present disclosure are used for therapeutic purposes to induce reprogramming of glial cells to neurons in an individual in need of neurons due to a disorder comprising neuronal loss and/or glial scarring. In certain embodiments, the subject is an ischemic brain injury due to stroke, hypoxia, or other brain trauma, or a neuron in need thereof that has been diagnosed with or is suspected of having alzheimer's disease or other neurodegenerative disorder.

In another aspect, the disclosure includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising a combination of at least two of thiazovivin, LDN193189, SB431542, TTNPB, CHIR99021, DAPT, VPA, SAG, 2,6, 9-trisubstituted purines, wherein the composition is used to reprogram glial cells to neurons. Pharmaceutical compositions comprising salts and analogs of these compounds as well as functionally related compounds (i.e., functional analogs) are also contemplated. In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition of the present disclosure comprises at least two of SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT, and/or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes all of SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021, and DAPT, and may also include additional compounds. In embodiments, the present disclosure includes compositions comprising as an active agent for reprogramming glial cells to neurons, one of the groups: i) LDN193189/CHIR99021/DAPT, ii) SB431542/CHIR99021/DAPT, iii) LDN193189/DAPT/SB431542, and iv) LDN193189/CHIR 99021/SB-431542. In one embodiment, any three members of the aforementioned groups are included. In one embodiment, the composition comprises or consists of the three drug combinations of SB431542/CHIR 99021/DAPT.

In another aspect, the present disclosure includes an article of manufacture comprising a package and at least one container comprising a pharmaceutical composition comprising a combination of at least three compounds selected from the group consisting of thiazovivin, LDN193189, SB431542, TTNPB, CHIR99021, DAPT, VPA, SAG, 2,6, 9-trisubstituted purine and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, the package comprising printed information providing an indication that the pharmaceutical composition is useful for treating a condition, wherein the condition is associated with a lack of functional neurons.

Drawings

Figure 1, sequential exposure to defined groups of small molecules, converts human astrocytes into neuronal cells. (A) Schematic representation of our strategy for converting cultured human astrocytes into neurons using a mixture of small molecules. Note that different subsets of small molecules are used at different stages of reprogramming. (B, C) quantitative analysis of human astrocyte cultures (HA1800, ScienCell). Most cells in our human astrocyte culture were immunopositive for the astrocyte marker GFAP (79.3 + -4.9%), the astrocyte glutamate transporter GLT-1(82.5 + -4.3%) and to a lesser extent S100 β (39.3 + -1.8%). None of the cells were immunopositive for the neuronal markers NeuN, MAP2, or bisphysin (DCX). HuNu, a human nuclear marker for human cells. N-3 batches. (D) Control human astrocyte cultures without small molecule treatment had few cells that were immunopositive for the neuronal markers DCX (green), β -iii tubulin (Tuj1, red) or MAP2 (cyan). (E) Sequential exposure of human astrocytes to small molecules produced a large number of neuronal cells that were immunopositive for DCX (green), Tuj1 (red) and MAP2 (cyan). MCM represents a primary conversion molecule, including 9 small molecules that are used together for reprogramming. Analysis was performed 14 days after the initial small molecule treatment. (F) Human astrocyte-transformed neurons developed extensive dendrites 30 days after primary small molecule treatment (MAP2, green) and were immunopositive for the mature neuronal marker NeuN (red). (G) Small molecule transformed human neurons survived 4 months in culture and showed robust dendritic trees (MAP2, green) and extensive axons (SMI312, red). (H) GFP retrovirus-tagged astrocytic lineage (Astroglial linkage) showed that GFP + cells were immunopositive for the neuronal marker NeuN (red) after small molecule treatment. N-5 batches. (I and J) high conversion rates were achieved by small molecule treatment after 8 days exposure to MCM (67.1 ± 0.8%, Tuj1+ neuron/DAPI-labeled total cells, n ═ 4 batches). (K) Brain astrocytes in humans are chemically reprogrammed to neurons. 1 month after the initial small molecule treatment of human midbrain astrocytes (ScienCell), most cells were immunopositive for the neuronal markers NeuN (red) and MAP2 (green). (L) the brain astrocyte cultures in control humans without small molecule treatment had few cells that were immunopositive to NeuN (red) or MAP2 (green) under 1 month of culture in neuronal differentiation medium. (M) quantitative analysis showed a large number of NeuN-positive neurons transformed by brain astrocytes in humans 1 month after small molecule treatment (199.7. + -. 9.2 per 40X field), whereas the control group had only a small number of NeuN + cells (5.6. + -. 1.4 per 40X field). N-4 batches. Scale bar: panel B is 50 μm; the other images were 20 μm. P <0.001, T test (Student's T test). Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

FIG. 2 functional analysis of human astrocyte-transformed neurons induced by small molecule treatment. (A) Long-term survival of small molecule induced human neurons (5 months in culture) and a large number of synaptic points (SV2, red) along the dendrites (MAP2, Green). Scale bar: 20 μm. (B-D) shows representative traces of Na + and K + currents recorded from human neurons at 1 month of age (B) and 2 months of age (C) induced by small molecules. Panel D shows the blockage of Na + current by TTX (2. mu.M). (E) Quantitative analysis of Na + and K + current peaks in 2-week to 3-month-old neurons transformed by small molecules from human astrocytes. (F) Representative traces of repetitive action potentials recorded in small molecule induced human neurons 75 days after initial drug treatment. (G and H) show representative traces of spontaneous synaptic activity in transformed human neurons at2 months of age. The clamp potential was-70 mV. (H) Extended traces from (G). (I) Inhibitory gabaergic activity was shown in human astrocyte transformed neurons when the clamp potential was maintained at 0mV (2 months of age). This activity is blocked by the GABAA receptor antagonist bicuculline (BIC, 10 μ M). (J-K) shows representative traces of spontaneous burst activity (burstviews) in 3-month-old small molecule-induced human neurons. HP-70 mV. (K) Is an expanded view of the burst in (J). (L) explosive activity was blocked by TTX (2. mu.M). The glutamate receptor antagonist DNQX (10. mu.M) is blocked in most casesSynaptic activities on the order of-70 mV suggest that they are glutamatergic. (M) Dual Whole-cell recordings suggest that small molecule transformed human neurons form a powerful synaptic network and fire simultaneously (fire). (N) Ca²⁺Ratio imaging further illustrates that small molecule transformed human neurons are highly connected and exhibit synchronized activity. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

Figure 3, characterization of human astrocyte-transformed neurons induced by small molecules. (A-C) immunostaining of Pre-post neuronal markers showed that small molecule transformed human neurons were positive for the forebrain marker FoxG1(A) but negative for the hindbrain and spinal cord markers HOX B4(B) and HOX C9 (C). (D-F) immunostaining of cortical neuronal markers shows that small molecule-induced human neurons are negative for the superficial marker Cux1(D) and positive for the deep markers Ctip2(E) and Otx1 (F). (G-H) Small molecule transformed human neurons were also immunopositive for the general cortical neuron marker Tbr1(G) and the hippocampal neuron marker Prox1 (H). (I) Quantitative analysis of small molecule induced human neurons (FoxG1, 97.1 ± 1.1%, n ═ 3 batches; Cux1, 3.1 ± 1.9%, n ═ 4 batches; Ctip2, 71.4 ± 3%, n ═ 4 batches; Otx1, 87.4 ± 3.2%, n ═ 3 batches; Tbr1, 86.4 ± 3.4%, n ═ 3 batches; Prox1, 73.4 ± 4.4%, n ═ 4 batches). Scale bar: 20 μm. (J) MCM-transformed human neurons were immunopositive for VGluT 1. (K) A small fraction of MCM-transformed human neurons were GAD67 positive. (L-N) MCM-transformed neurons were immunonegative for the cholinergic neuron marker vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) (L), the dopaminergic neuron marker Tyrosine Hydroxylase (TH) (M), or the spinal motor neuron marker Isl1 (N). (O) quantitative analysis of small molecule transformed human neurons (VGluT1, 88.3 + -4%, n-4 batches; GAD67, 8.2 + -1.5%, n-4 batches). Scale bar: 20 μm. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

FIG. 4, transcriptional and epigenetic regulation during chemical reprogramming of human astrocytes into neurons. (A-B) PCR arrays showed extensive transcriptional activation of the neural transcription factors (NGN1/2, NEUROD1 and ASCL1) and the immature neuronal gene DCX at day 4 (A) or day 8 (B) after small molecule treatment. It was noted that DCX increased more than 2000-fold at D8 compared to the control. Genes showing significant changes in PCR array assays are provided (P <0.05, Mann-Whitney t test). (C-F) shows the transcriptional changes in the time course by real-time quantitative PCR analysis. The neural transcription factors NGN2(C) and NEUROD1(D) showed transcriptional peaks at D4 and D6, respectively; the astrocyte genes GFAP (E) and ALDH1L1(F) were significantly down-regulated. P <0.05, P <0.01, P < 0.001; two-way analysis of variance followed by Dunnett's test. N-3 batches. (G-I) epigenetic regulation of the GFAP promoter and transcription initiation site during chemical reprogramming. MeDIP-seq showed a significant increase in methylation of the GFAP promoter region (G, box region) after 8 days of small molecule treatment, as evidenced by the subsequent BS-seq (bisulfite sequencing) (H). Note that the hypermethylation sites are located in flanking regions of two important transcription factor binding sites (STAT3 and AP1), which significantly inhibit transcription of GFAP. BS-seq also showed a significant increase in methylation levels of the GFAP Transcription Start Site (TSS) and 5' UTR regulatory region (I), further suggesting inhibition of GFAP transcription by DNA methylation. (J-K) MeDIP-seq and BS-seq show a significant reduction in methylation in the promoter region of the neuronal gene NEFM (neurofilament M), indicating transcriptional activation of neuronal genes during chemoreprogramming of human astrocytes into neurons. (L-M) CHIP-qPCR showed a significant increase in histone acetylation in the NGN2 promoter region, possibly caused by the HDAC inhibitor VPA, after small molecule treatment. Methylation levels of H3K4 in the (N-O) NGN2 promoter region (N) were significantly increased, while H3K27 methylation at the NGN2 transcription start site was significantly decreased (O), indicating epigenetic activation of NGN2 by histone modification. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

FIG. 5, increase in protein expression level of neural transcription factor during chemical reprogramming. (A-C) representative images illustrate the gradual activation of the small molecule treatment by the endogenous neural transcription factors Ascl1(A), Ngn2(B) and neuroD1(C) for different days. (D-E) representative images show a gradual increase in neuronal signals DCX (D) and NeuN (E) during the transition from D0 to D10. (F) Representative images show a decrease in the astrocyte marker GFAP from D0 to D10. Scale bar: 20 μm. (G-I) quantitative analysis of protein expression levels of Ascl1(G), Ngn2(H) and neuroD1 (I). Note that Ascl1 increased significantly by 3-fold on day 2, whereas Ngn2 peaked on day 4 and NeuroD1 peaked on day 6. N-3 batches. (J) The quantitative data showed a significant increase in NeuN from day 6 to day 10. N-3 batches. (K) The quantitative data showed a significant decrease from D0 to D10 GFAP. N-3 batches. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

Figure 6, evaluation of the important role of each individual small molecule during astrocyte-neuron reprogramming. (A) Human astrocytes treated with 1% DMSO served as a control. NeuN, green; MAP2, red. (B) The defined combination of 9 small molecules induced the production of a large number of neurons (14 days after the initial small molecule treatment, as in the following removal experiment). (C-F) removal of DAPT (C), CHIR99021(D), SB431542(E) or LDN193189(F) alone from 9 small molecule pools significantly reduced the number of transformed neurons. (G) Removal of sonic hedgehog agonists (sonic hedgehog agonists) SAG and Purmo together slightly reduced the number of transformed neurons. (H) Removal of VPA also slightly reduced the number of neurons. (I-J) removal of Tzv (I) or TTNPB (J) does not affect neuronal conversion. Scale bar: 20 μm. (K) Quantitative analysis showed that DAPT is the most potent reprogramming factor, followed by CHIR99021, SB431542 and LDN 193189. P < 0.05; p < 0.01; p < 0.001; one-way anova followed by Sidak's multiple comparison test. N-3 batches. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

Figure 7, in vivo survival and integration of small molecule transformed human neurons in mouse brain. (A) Schematic representation shows the transplantation of small molecule transformed human neurons into postnatal day 1 mouse brain. (B) GFP positive cells were identified around the lateral ventricle 7 days after cell injection (7 DPI). Many GFP positive cells were also positive for DCX (red) and all GFP positive cells were immunopositive for human nuclei (HuNu, Blue), indicating their human cellular nature. N ═ 6 mice. (C) At 11DPI, some GFP positive cells were immunopositive for MAP2 (red), indicating survival and growth of human neurons in vivo in mouse brain. N ═ 6 mice. (D) At 11DPI, some GFP-positive human neurons that were immunopositive for NeuN (red) and HuNu (cyan) migrated to adjacent striatal regions and extended long processes. (E) Human neurons labeled with NeuN (red) and HuNu (blue) survive in the mouse brain for more than 1 month and are surrounded by mouse neurons (NeuN positive but HuNu negative). N-2 mice. (F) GFP-positive human neurons were innervated by peripheral neurons, as indicated by many synaptic points (SV2, red) along the GFP-positive neurites (inset), indicating synaptic fusion of the transplanted human neurons into local neural circuits. N-2 mice. Scale bar: 20 μm.

FIG. 8, characterization of cultured human dermal astrocytes. (A) Human dermal astrocytes (HA1800, Sciencell) cultured in glial medium (GM, 10% FBS) or N2 medium (for reprogramming, no FBS) and immunostained with Musashi, Nestin and Sox 2. Note that in both media, there were no neural progenitor cells. (B) Quantitative analysis of neural stem cell markers showed lower expression levels of Musashi, Nestin (Nestin) and Sox2 in cultured human astrocytes compared to human Neural Progenitor Cells (NPCs). P <0.0001, one-way anova, followed by Dunnett's test. N-3 batches. (C-D) human astrocytes (HA1800, Sciencell) were cultured for 1 month in Neuronal Differentiation Medium (NDM) supplemented with BDNF, NT3 and NGF to ensure neural differentiation if there were any neural stem cells in the astrocyte culture. Quantitative analysis showed that most cells were immunopositive for the astrocyte markers S100 β (74.7. + -. 1.5%), GFAP (83.6. + -. 1.2%), Glutamate Synthase (GS) (94.3. + -. 0.7%) and GLT-1 (91.4. + -. 1.5%). A small number of cells stained positive for DCX (5.18. + -. 0.67) and Tuj1 (8.98. + -. 0.75%), but no cells positive for NeuN and NG 2. N-4 batches, 20 μm scale bar. (E-H) functional analysis of cultured human astrocytes (HA 1800). Electrophysiological recordings showed large K + currents but no Na + currents (E), interstitial junctional junctions between adjacent astrocytes (F-G) and glutamate (500M) transporter currents (H). (F) Dye associations between the local astrocytic domains are shown after recording. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

Figure 9 imaging astrocyte-neuron transformation process over time during small molecule treatment. (A) GFP retrovirus-labeled Human Astrocytes (HA) maintained astrocyte morphology at D8 when treated with 1% DMSO as a control. Imaging was performed daily with a nikon 2000 fluorescence microscope. We used CAG:: GFP retrovirus instead of GFAP:: GFP retrovirus in this experiment to image living cells over time, and GFAP:: GFP retrovirus, because the GFAP promoter is a weak promoter, and thus the GFP signal in GFP-infected cells is too weak for imaging living cells. (B) Representative pictures show that GFP + cells in the control group were immunopositive for the astrocyte marker GFAP (red) after 21 days of culture. (C) Two GFP-labeled human astrocytes were monitored from one day before small molecule treatment to 10 days after small molecule treatment. There was a clear cell morphology shift from D0 astrocytes to D9 neuron-like cells. (D) After imaging over time, the cells were fixed again by D21 and immunostained with the neuronal markers NeuN and Tuj 1. Small molecule treated GFP-labeled cells (green, arrows) were immunopositive for NeuN (red) and Tuj1 (cyan). Scale bar 20 μm. (E-G) human astrocytes were infected with GFAP:: GFP retrovirus for lineage tracing. GFAP:. GFP infected cells were all GFAP + (E, red). Without small molecule treatment, GFP + cells remained GFAP + astrocytes (F, red) with no neurons detected (G) after 18 days in culture. N-3 batches. Scale bar 10 μm. See fig. 8H for the small molecule treated group. (H-J) infection with LCN2 human astrocytes of GFP retrovirus were immunopositive for GFAP (H, Red) and LCN2(H, cyan). GFP + cells retained astrocytic morphology and were immunopositive for GFAP (I, red) after 18 days in culture without small molecule treatment. In contrast, GFP + cells were immunopositive for NeuN (J, red) following small molecule treatment. N-3 batches. Scale bar 10 μm.

FIG. 10 transformation of human astrocytes from different sources into neurons. (A) Characterization of human midbrain astrocytes (HA midbrain, Sciencell) that were immunologically positive for the astrocyte markers GFAP, S100 β, GS and Glt1, but showed low expression levels of the neural stem cell markers Sox2 and nestin. (B) The brain astrocyte cultures in control humans without small molecule treatment had few cells that were immunopositive for the neuronal markers DCX (green) or β -iii tubulin (Tuj1, red). (C) Sequential exposure of human brain astrocytes to small molecules produces a large number of neuronal cells that are immunopositive to DCX (green) and Tuj1 (red). Analysis was performed 16 days after the initial small molecule treatment. (D-E) immunostaining of lower axon marker SMI312 (green) in 1 month old cultures of brain astrocytes in humans without small molecule treatment (D) or with small molecule treatment (E). (F) Long-lived human neurons transformed from human mesencephalic astrocytes. A large number of synaptic points (SV2, red) were distributed along dendrites (MAP2, green) in NeuN positive (cyan) neurons. (G-H) human brain astrocytes from different sources (Gibco) were also successfully reprogrammed to neurons with an efficiency of 41.1 + -3.6% using the same small molecule protocol. N-4 batches. (I) Immunostaining showed the signal for haptoglobin (red) and MAP2 (green) in 2-month-old neurons transformed from Gibco human astrocytes. Thus, human brain astrocytes from different sources can be successfully converted into neurons using the same small molecule strategy. Panels A and I are 10 μm on a scale bar, with the remainder being 20 μm.

FIG. 11, direct conversion of human astrocytes to neurons without the stem cell stage. (A-C) representative images show low expression levels of neural stem cell markers Sox2(A, red), nestin (B, green), and Pax6 (green) on different days of small molecule treatment compared to human NPC cultures. (D) Representative images showed no significant cell expansion during reprogramming as shown by the cell proliferation marker Ki67 (red). (E-F) BrdU determines the birth date of astrocyte-transformed neurons before and after small molecule-mediated reprogramming. BrdU is administered to the medium 1 day before (E) or 10 days after (F) small molecule treatment. Cells were fixed on day 30. (E) Arrow in (1) points to cells co-localized with BrdU and NeuN. (G-I) quantitative analysis of the fluorescence intensities of Sox2(G), nestin (H) and Pax6(I) during chemical reprogramming normalized to the intensity at D0. Compared with D0, Sox2 expression level was slightly increased at D4-D10, but was much lower than that of NPC cells (G). On the other hand, nestin expression levels are very low (H) compared to NPC cells. Similarly, Pax6+ cells were also very rare compared to NPC cells (I). (J) Ki67+ cells were quantitated to assess the rate of cell proliferation during chemical reprogramming. D2-D6 cells proliferated significantly less after small molecule treatment compared to D0. The overall proliferation rate of human astrocytes is significantly lower than that of NPC cells. A reduced proliferation rate in the presence of small molecules indicates that no cell expansion occurs during chemical reprogramming. (K) Quantitative analysis of BrdU-labeled neurons in E-F. When BrdU was added before small molecule treatment, a large number of cells showed co-localization of BrdU and NeuN (77.3 ± 3.8%). If BrdU is added after small molecule treatment, there are few NeuN + cells co-localized with BrdU (D10 to D30, 1.75. + -. 0.73%), indicating a large conversion to neurons in the presence of small molecules. N-3 batches. Scale bar 20 μm. P < 0.001; p < 0.0001; one-way anova followed by Dunnett's multiple comparison test. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

Figure 12, signaling pathway in small molecule mediated reprogramming. (A-B) PCR arrays showed no significant gene expression changes on day 4 (A) or day 8 (B) for control human astrocyte cultures (as solvent controls) that were not treated with small molecules but were treated with 1% DMSO. (C-F) in control human astrocyte cultures (1% DMSO), real-time quantitative PCR also showed minimal transcriptional changes for the neural transcription factors NGN2(C) and NEUROD1(D) or the glial genes GFAP (E) and ALDH1L1 (F). N-3 batches. (G) Representative images show a decrease in the level of phosphorylated SMAD1/5/9 (green) in the nucleus after 2 days of small molecule treatment. Quantitative analysis of fluorescence intensity of p-SMAD1/5/9 indicated that BMP signaling pathway was inhibited. (H) Representative images and quantitative analysis demonstrated a decrease in D6Notch intracellular domain (NICD) (green) levels after primary small molecule treatment, indicating that the Notch signaling pathway is inhibited. (I) Representative images and quantitative analysis indicate an increase in the level of phosphorylated GSK3 β (green) after 6 days of treatment with small molecules, indicating that GSK3 β is inactivated. P < 0.001; p < 0.0001; one-way anova followed by Dunnett's multiple comparison test. N-3 batches. Scale bar 10 μm. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

Figure 13, no significant change in endogenous neural transcription factors in control human astrocytes that were not treated with small molecules. (A-C) immunostaining showed very low levels of protein expression of the endogenous neural transcription factors Ascl1(A), Ngn2(B) and neuroD1(C) in control human astrocytes (1% DMSO). (D) NeuN staining showed few neurons under control conditions. (E) Representative images show constant expression of GFAP (red) under control conditions. Quantitative analysis of fluorescence intensities of Ascl1(F), Ngn2(G) and NeuroD1(H) during culture of (F-H) D2-D10, normalized to the intensity at D0. (I) Quantitative analysis showed that there were few NeuN-positive cells in the D0 through D10 control human astrocyte cultures. (J) Quantitative analysis showed that GFAP expression was still high from D0 to D10 in control human astrocyte cultures. N-3 batches. Scale bar 20 μm. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

Figure 14, small molecules injected into mouse cortex promote the mouse cortex astrocytes to turn to neural stem cells in vivo. (A) Mouse cortical astrocytes (GFAP, red) showed significant morphological changes and expressed high levels of nestin (green) 6 days after single injection (dpi) of small molecules including sb4315420.1nmol, ldn 1931890.01nmol, chir990210.03nmol, DAPT 0.1nmol, SAG 0.01nmol and TTNPB 0.01nmol (mixed in a total volume of 2 μ Ι). Some cells expressing DCX (cyan) were observed around the injection site. N-4 animals. (B) Quantitative analysis showed increased nestin expression in small molecule treated mouse astrocytes in vivo (Student's t test, P < 0.0001). (C) Small molecule treated cortical tissue was isolated and cultured in vitro. There were many more and larger primary neurospheres than control cortical tissue treated with PBS containing 6% DMSO. (D-E) quantitative analysis showed that small molecule treated cortical tissue produced more neurospheres (D) and had a larger size (E). Student's t assay, P < 0.0001. (F) Primary neurospheres were subcultured and plated as single cells. The highly proliferative single cells continued to divide to form secondary neurospheres in suspension culture 3 days after plating. (G-H) quantification showed more secondary neurospheres (G) with larger size (H) formed in the small molecule treated group. Student's t test, P <0.001, P < 0.0001. (I) Cells from secondary neurospheres were cultured in monolayers and were immunopositive for the neural stem cell markers Sox2 (green) and nestin (red). (J) Cells from the secondary neurospheres differentiated into neuronal cells (Tuj1, green) in neuronal differentiation medium and into oligodendrocytes (CNPase, red) or astrocytes (GFAP, green) in glial medium. N-3 batches. Scale bar: A. i, J ═ 20 μm. C. F is 200 μm. Data are presented as mean ± SEM.

Figure 15, data show that a total of 4 small molecules can successfully reprogram human glial cells to neurons. (A) The core drug, i.e., SB 4315425 μ M, LDN1931890.25 μ M, CHIR 990211.5 μ M, DAPT 5 μ M, was added to the human astrocyte cell line HA1800 for 6 days. The media containing the drug was changed every two days. 14 days after drug addition, cells were immunostained for the neuronal marker NeuN, indicating that many human glial cells were transformed into neurons. (B-C) SB431542 is replaced by its functional analogue Repsox 1. mu.M (B) or A-83010.25. mu.M (C). (D) The cells in the four groups that were immune positive for NeuN were quantified. Different batches were normalized to a core group. The conversion rate for replacing SB with Repsox group was 88.5 + -5.0% of the core drug group, while the conversion rate for replacing SB with A-8301 group was 86.8 + -5.0% of the core drug group.

Figure 16, data showing the efficacy of the core drug. (A) The core drug, i.e., SB 4315425 μ M, LDN1931890.25 μ M, CHIR 990211.5 μ M, DAPT 5 μ M, was added to the human astrocyte cell line HA1800 for 6 days. The media containing the drug was changed every two days. Cells were immunostained for the neuronal marker NeuN 14 days after drug addition. (B-C) LDN193189 was replaced by the functional analogs Dorsomorphin 1. mu.M (B) and DMH 11.5. mu.M (C). (D) The cells in the four groups that were immune positive for NeuN were quantified. Different batches were normalized to a core group. The conversion efficiency of the LDN193189 was similar to that of the core group by the Dorsomorphin group, while the conversion efficiency of the LDN193189 was 86.8 + -4.9% of the core group by the DMH1 group.

Figure 17, data showing the efficacy of the core drug. (A) The core drug, i.e., SB 4315425 μ M, LDN1931890.25 μ M, CHIR 990211.5 μ M, DAPT 5 μ M, was added to the human astrocyte cell line HA1800 for 6 days. The media containing the drug was changed every two days. Cells were immunostained for the neuronal marker NeuN 14 days after drug addition. (B-C) CHIR99021 was replaced by its functional analogue ARA 0144186. mu.M (B) or SB 2167631. mu.M (C). (D) The cells in the four groups that were immune positive for NeuN were quantified. Different batches were normalized to a core group. The conversion of CHIR to ARA014418 group was 56.9. + -. 4.3% of the coreset, while the conversion of CHIR to SB216763 was 76.07. + -. 4.2% of the coreset.

Figure 18, data showing the efficacy of the core drug. A) The core drug, i.e., SB 4315425 μ M, LDN1931890.25 μ M, CHIR 990211.5 μ M, DAPT 5 μ M, was added to the human astrocyte cell line HA1800 for 6 days. The media containing the drug was changed every two days. Cells were immunostained for the neuronal marker NeuN 14 days after drug addition. (B-C) DAPT was replaced by its functional analogues BMS 9060242. mu.M (B) and RO 49290970.5. mu.M (C). (D) The cells in the four groups that were immune positive for NeuN were quantified. Different batches are normalized to a core group. Substitution of DAPT for RO4929097 group achieved similar conversion to the core group, while substitution of DAPT for BMS906024 group resulted in a conversion of 85.0 ± 6.1% of the core group.

Figure 19, data show that any combination of 3 drugs in SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT can reprogram human glial cells into neurons. Drug was added for 6 days and immunostaining was performed against the neuronal marker NeuN 14 days after drug treatment. The 3 drug combinations SB431542/CHIR99021/DAPT appeared to be more potent than SB431542/LDN193189/CHIR 99021.

Detailed Description

The present disclosure includes compositions and methods designed to convert human glial cells into functional neurons. In embodiments, the present disclosure includes, but is not necessarily limited to, reversal of glial scars into neural tissue, which is expected to be useful in a variety of therapies, non-limiting embodiments of which include brain and spinal cord repair. The methods generally comprise administering to an individual in need thereof an effective amount of a composition comprising thiazovin, LDN193189, SB431542, TTNPB, CHIR99021, DAPT, VPA, SAG, and a 2,6, 9-trisubstituted purine and combinations thereof or a compound selected from the group consisting of thiazovin, LDN193189, SB431542, TTNPB, CHIR99021, DAPT, VPA, SAG, and a 2,6, 9-trisubstituted purine and combinations thereof, such that glial cells in the individual are converted to neurons. In embodiments, alternative compounds are used, wherein these compounds have the same or similar effect as the above compounds, and wherein administration of the combination results in the conversion of glial cells to neurons.

In embodiments, the present disclosure contemplates broad application to the treatment of any human subject in need of neuronal production. The increased need for neuronal production is a result of any of a variety of conditions, disorders or injuries that affect neuronal function and/or reduce the number of functional neurons in an individual. Accordingly, the present disclosure relates to the prevention and/or treatment of conditions including, but not necessarily limited to, ischemic brain injury, such as that caused by stroke, hypoxia or other brain trauma, or caused by glial scarring or neurodegenerative diseases. In embodiments, the disclosure relates to the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, including but not limited to alzheimer's disease or other disorders exhibiting dementia, or Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) such as athletes with a history of acute or recurrent brain trauma (i.e., concussion), or parkinson's disease, or huntington's disease, or multiple sclerosis, or glioma, or spinal cord injury or spinal muscular atrophy, or Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS).

The present disclosure is believed to be novel over previous methods in that it does not include introducing modified cells or viral constructs into a subject. For example, although U.S. patent publication No. 20130183674 discloses the use of cell culture media containing compounds SB431542, LDN1933189, SU5402, CHIR99021 and DAPT for inducing pluripotent (pluripotent) or multipotent (multipotent) stem cells to form nociceptor cells (nocicept cells), it is limited to the use of these compounds for differentiating these stem cells in vitro, and importantly, this prior art approach is different from our reprogramming of glial cells into neuronal cells because stem cells can naturally differentiate into neurons, but glial cells cannot become neurons unless undergoing a reprogramming process, such as that demonstrated in the present disclosure. Furthermore, one skilled in the art will recognize that the injection of cultured stem cells or their differentiated neurons into a human subject, particularly the brain, poses a risk to the subject (srisk). Also, as described above, astrocytes have been demonstrated to be converted into neurons in vivo, but these methods involve the introduction of viral vectors or other foreign genes into subjects, which also pose a particular risk to the subject.

In contrast to previous approaches, the present disclosure provides in various embodiments the use of pharmaceutical formulations that are completely cell-free and virus-free comprising chemical compounds that work together with each other to induce the conversion of glial cells to neurons, and also provides in vivo demonstration of this process.

In embodiments, the present disclosure includes administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of one or more compositions comprising as an active ingredient a combination of compounds selected from thiazovivin, LDN193189, SB431542, TTNPB, CHIR99021, DAPT, VPA, SAG, and 2,6, 9-trisubstituted purines. In embodiments, different combinations of these compounds are administered sequentially. Each of these compounds is known in the art and is commercially available. The present disclosure includes compositions and methods comprising any three, four, five, six, seven, eight, or all nine of these compounds, and may include additional compounds described herein or apparent to those skilled in the art as may provide the benefit of the present disclosure. The disclosure includes pharmaceutically acceptable salts of these compounds, analogs of the compounds and salts, and compounds that exert the same or similar function as the compounds, provided that administration of their combination to an individual results in the conversion of glial cells to neurons.

In one embodiment, the disclosure includes administering to the individual a combination of compounds (simultaneously or sequentially), wherein the combination comprises or consists of at least three of SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT. Without wishing to be bound by theory, these four compounds are sometimes referred to herein as core compounds.

For these compounds, it is obvious to the person skilled in the art that SB431542 is: - [4- (1, 3-benzoxadiazol-5-yl) -5- (2-pyridinyl) -1H-imidazol-2-yl ] benzamide and has the chemical structure:

LDN193189 is: 4- (6- (4- (piperazin-1-yl) phenyl) pyrazolo [1,5-a ] pyrimidin-3-yl) quinoline hydrochloride and has the chemical structure:

CHIR99021 is: 6- [ [2- [ [4- (2, 4-dichlorophenyl) -5- (5-methyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl) -2-pyrimidinyl ] amino ] ethyl ] amino ] -3-cyanopyridine and having the chemical structure:

DAPT is: 1, 1-dimethylethyl N- [ (3, 5-difluorophenyl) acetyl ] -L-alanyl-2-phenyl ] glycine ester and having the chemical structure:

one skilled in the art will recognize that each compound described herein includes pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof to the extent not explicitly indicated in the formulae and nomenclature presented in this disclosure. It will also be appreciated that SB-431542 is an inhibitor of the transforming growth factor- β superfamily type I activin receptor-like kinase (ALK) receptors ALK4, ALK5 and ALK 7. LDN-193189 is an inhibitor of the bone morphogenetic protein type I receptors ALK2 and ALK 3. CHIR99021 is a selective inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase 3(GSK-3) and DAPT is an inhibitor of gamma-secretase. Accordingly, other compounds having these functions (i.e., functional analogs) are included within the scope of the present disclosure. In this regard, the present disclosure provides data that demonstrates that reprogramming of glial cells to neurons can be achieved using a combination of only three drugs selected from the group of four core compounds comprising SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT. In addition, the present disclosure provides evidence that these four core drugs can be replaced with functional analogs and still have similar effects, i.e., promoting the conversion of human glial cells to neurons. As used herein, a "functional analog" refers to a compound that has similar physical, chemical, biochemical, or pharmacological properties as compared to another compound. The functional analogs may or may not have similar structures to each other. It is demonstrated in this disclosure that a combination of compounds that act together on signaling through transforming growth factor beta (TGF- β), Bone Morphogenic Protein (BMP), glycogen synthase kinase 3(GSK-3), and gamma-secretase/Notch pathways can reprogram glial cells to neurons. This is specifically illustrated using the drug combinations i) LDN193189/CHIR99021/DAPT, ii) SB431542/CHIR99021/DAPT, iii) LDN193189/DAPT/SB431542 and iv) LDN193189/CHIR99021/SB431542 (see example 9 and FIGS. 15-19). Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the same results can be obtained by substituting functional analogs for these compounds. For example, the TGF- β receptor inhibitor SB431542 may be replaced by other TGF- β receptor inhibitors, such as Repsox and A8301. Likewise, the BMP receptor inhibitor LDN193189 may be replaced by a functional analogue thereof, as demonstrated using Dorsomorphin and DMH 1. The GSK-3 inhibitor CHIR9902 may be replaced by functional analogues such as AR-A014418 and SB 216763. Similarly, the γ -secretase/Notch 1 signalling inhibitor DAPT, can be replaced by pan Notch inhibitors BMS906024 or RO 4929097. Thus, in various embodiments, the disclosure includes reprogramming human glial cells to neurons by modulating the TGF- β, BMP, GSK-3, and γ -secretase/Notch signaling pathways. Other functional analogs are described in table 1. Thus, in certain embodiments, substitutes for SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT encompassed by the present invention include, but are not necessarily limited to, those described in the table:

TABLE 1

In embodiments, the combination administered includes a Shh agonist Smooth Agonist (SAG), which is an agonist of sonic hedgehog.

Thus, as will be apparent from the description, examples and figures of the present disclosure, we have found that human astrocytes can be directly reprogrammed into functional neurons by combining the small molecules described herein. In carrying out this finding, we tested a number of small molecules targeting signaling pathways thought to be important for activating neurogenesis while inhibiting neurogenesis. We have found that the above panel of small molecules is capable of reprogramming human astrocytes into neurons. In more detail, when human astrocytes are simultaneously exposed to a pool of nine small molecules in common, they undergo severe cell death and the efficiency of neuronal reprogramming is low, less than 10%. In contrast, most human astrocytes (-70%) were reprogrammed to neuronal cells when a subset of nine small molecules were administered in a sequential manner. We demonstrate that these small molecule reprogrammed human neurons can survive in culture for more than three months and show robust synaptic activity. Human astrocyte-transformed neurons were injected into the mouse brain, showing that these human neurons can integrate into the local brain circuit. Together, these data demonstrate the feasibility of pure chemical reprogramming of human astrocytes into functional neurons, which is expected to lead to a convenient method of chemical delivery for the treatment of various brain injuries and neurodegenerative disorders. Furthermore, our results are not limited to in vitro demonstration, as administration of chemically reprogrammed human neurons to animals as demonstrated herein produces synaptic connections to endogenous neurons in mouse brain.

Generally, the methods of the present disclosure comprise administering to a subject an effective amount of a compound described herein such that the number of neurons in the individual is increased. In embodiments, glial cells (e.g., astrocytes) in an individual are reprogrammed so that they are converted to neurons. In embodiments, the newly generated neurons comprise predominantly glutamatergic neurons with a small number of gabaergic neurons. In embodiments, by using the methods described herein (with modifications to the methods as necessary by one of skill in the art having the obvious benefit of the present disclosure), it is contemplated that the present disclosure will promote the development of neocortical pre-brain neurons, or mid-brain neurons, or post-brain neurons, or spinal cord neurons, or a combination thereof. In embodiments, it is expected that the methods of the present disclosure will result in an increase in endogenous neural transcription factors in cells that are transformed into neurons. In embodiments, the target cell exhibits increased expression of Ascl1, Ngn2, NeuroD1, and the combination. In embodiments, the reprogrammed neuron is characterized by expression of neuronal markers including, but not necessarily limited to, Dcx and NeuN. In embodiments, cells in the brain, such as glial cells, are converted into neurons. In an embodiment, the neuron is a functional neuron. Functional neurons can exhibit properties including, but not necessarily limited to, excitation of repetitive action potentials, development of multiple dendritic branches, and release of neurotransmitters including, but not necessarily limited to, glutamate (glutamate), dopamine, acetylcholine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, norepinephrine (norepinephrine), and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).

Compositions comprising the disclosed compounds may be provided in pharmaceutical formulations. The form of the pharmaceutical preparation is not particularly limited, but generally comprises these active ingredients and at least one inactive ingredient. In certain embodiments, suitable pharmaceutical compositions may be prepared by mixing any one or a combination of the compounds with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, diluent or excipient and suitable ingredients well known in the art. Some examples of such carriers, diluents and excipients can be found in the following documents: the Science and Practice of Pharmacy (2005)21^stEdition,Philadelphia,PA.Lippincott Williams&Wilkins. In embodiments, the pharmaceutical formulation is suitable for delivering the active ingredient across the blood-brain barrier and/or the spinal cord or other parts of the central nervous system. Such compositions may comprise, for example, lipid formulations or other nanoparticle-based delivery systems.

In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation is suitable for oral administration and thus may be provided in aerosolized, liquid or solid dosage forms. Solid dosage forms include, but are not necessarily limited to, tablets, capsules, caplets, and strips for swallowing or oral dissolution, and may provide for rapid or extended release, or release of different compounds in a desired sequence over a period of time. Separate pharmaceutical compositions comprising two compounds or any combination of compounds may also be used. Thus, the pharmaceutical formulation may comprise any two or any combination of SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT, as well as any other functional analogue. Thus, in certain embodiments, a collection of LDN193189, SB431542, CHIR99021 and DAPT, or three of these compounds or their functional analogs, may be necessary for the purpose of stimulating reprogramming of neurons in a human subject. In embodiments, the core compound may be required and sufficient to reprogram glial cells into neurons.

With respect to the administration of the pharmaceutical formulation, the route of administration may be any suitable route. In embodiments, the composition comprising the compound is delivered orally. In other non-limiting embodiments, the composition is administered intravenously, parenterally, subcutaneously, intraperitoneally, transdermally, intranasally, by implantation, or intraarterially. In embodiments, implantable medical devices, such as pumps, including but not limited to osmotic pumps, may be used. In embodiments, the composition comprising the compound is delivered via the intracranial route.

Appropriate dosages of the compounds may be determined in conjunction with the knowledge of one skilled in the art, given the benefit of this disclosure. In embodiments, the weight and age of the individual, the personal history of neuronal injury or disease, and the risk of experiencing the same neuronal injury, or the presence of glial scarring or reactive gliomas may be considered when determining the effective amount of the active ingredient and the dosing regimen. In embodiments, the compound is administered in an amount of from about 0.01nmol to about 100nmol or more per day, inclusive of the numbers and including all integers and ranges therebetween, depending on the delivery method used. In embodiments, the compound is provided in a single, multiple or controlled release dosage regimen. In embodiments, SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT, and other small molecules according to the present disclosure are administered simultaneously or sequentially.

In certain embodiments, the present disclosure includes nutritional compositions designed to confer a beneficial effect associated with improved neuronal health and/or function to an individual. In certain embodiments, the compositions of the invention may be used to improve the general health of an individual or the cognitive ability of an individual, for example to improve memory or maintain memory. In embodiments, the compositions may be used to improve any or all of short term memory, long term memory, or motor skills, including but not necessarily limited to gross and fine motor skills. Accordingly, the present disclosure includes the use of nutritional supplements comprising the small molecules described herein.

In one embodiment, the present disclosure includes an article. In certain aspects, the article of manufacture comprises a closed or sealed package comprising two compounds described herein or a combination of compounds described herein, e.g., separate tablets, capsules, and the like. The package may comprise one or more containers, such as closed or sealed vials, bottles, blister (bibble) packages or any other suitable package for sale, distribution or use of a medicament. Thus, the package may contain a pharmaceutical composition that includes all of SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT, or only three of these compounds, or functional analogs and/or other compounds described herein. Any two or all of these compounds may be included, and each may be provided separately or in combination with one or more other substances, in the same or different dosage formulations, so that they may be delivered simultaneously or sequentially. In one embodiment, LDN193189 or SB431542 or a combination thereof is provided separately from CHIR99021 or DAPT or a combination thereof.

In addition to the pharmaceutical composition, the package may contain printed information. The printed information may be provided on a label or on inserted paper, or printed on the packaging material itself. The printed information may include information identifying the active agent in the package, the amount and type of inactive ingredient, an indication of the condition for which the pharmaceutical composition is intended to treat, and instructions for administering the pharmaceutical composition, such as the number of doses to be administered for a given period of time, the order in which the compositions are to be administered, and the like. Thus, in various embodiments, the present disclosure includes pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention packaged in a packaging material and identified as printed on or in the packaging material for use in treating or preventing any disease, condition, or disorder associated with neuronal deterioration, neuronal insufficiency, or neuronal dysfunction. In another embodiment, the present disclosure includes nutritional formulations in addition to pharmaceutical compositions, and the printed material provides information regarding the use of such formulations to improve cognitive function, memory, motor function, overall health, and the like.

The following specific examples are provided to illustrate the invention, but are not intended to be limiting in any way. In the case of reference to colors in the figures, the labels are provided as representative samples of the reference color.

Example 1

This example demonstrates the success of reprogramming human astrocytes into neurons by small molecules as described above. These experiments were designed to develop convenient methods for reprogramming human astrocytes into neurons by small molecules using methods such as, but not limited to, orally administered drugs that can be easily taken by patients. Therefore, we investigated whether small molecules could replace neural transcription factors to reprogram glial cells into neurons. We used human cortical astrocytes (HA1800, ScienCell, San Diego, CA, USA) in chemical reprogramming culture for clinical application in human brain repair. Based on two main selection criteria: one ct inhibits the glial signaling pathway and the other is the neuronal signaling pathway, and we selected 20 small molecules as our initial candidate pool. Some molecules are included because they can modulate DNA or histone structure to improve reprogramming efficiency. The 20 small molecules selected for our initial screening were: SB431542, Repsox, LDN193189, dorsomorphin, DAPT, BMS-299897, CHIR99021, TWS119, Thiazovivin, Y27632, SAG, 2,6, 9-trisubstituted purine (purmorphamine), TTNPB, RA, VPA, forskolin, BIX01294, RG-108, ISX9, and Static.

We used mainly human dermal astrocytes (HA1800, ScienCell, san diego, CA, USA) in primary culture for chemical reprogramming. Human astrocytes were isolated, passaged and maintained in medium with 10% Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) to reduce possible progenitor cell contamination, as FBS stimulates progenitor cell differentiation. For initial testing, we applied a panel of small molecules together to human astrocyte cultures, but significant cell death was observed after 2 days of drug treatment. To reduce cell death, we added fewer small molecules at different time points. Each molecule was tested with a range of different concentrations to find the optimal concentration for reprogramming. After testing hundreds of different combinations, we found that the combination of 9 small molecules was able to reprogram human astrocytes into neurons when the combination of 9 small molecules was added in a stepwise fashion (fig. 1A). This group of 9 small molecules is hereinafter referred to as the primary conversion molecule (MCM). Specifically, human astrocytes were first treated with LDN193189 (0.25. mu.M), SB431542 (5. mu.M), TTNPB (0.5. mu.M) and thiazovivin (Tzv, 0.5. mu.M) for 2 days. SB431542 is an inhibitor of TGF β/activating receptor, which is involved in inhibiting neuronal fate (fate) and promoting glial fate during early neural development. Similarly, LDN193189 is an inhibitor of the BMP receptor, which is a member of the TGF β receptor, and is important for astrocyte differentiation. TTNPB is an agonist of retinoic acid receptors, which has been reported to be critical in central nervous system models. We used a combination of LDN193189, SB431542 and TTNPB to initiate the reprogramming process by inhibiting glial signaling pathways and simultaneously activating neuronal signaling pathways. Tzv is an inhibitor of Rho-associated kinase (ROCK), promotes cell survival, and has been reported to increase Ipsc reprogramming efficiency. Tzv was included throughout 8 days of the reprogramming period. After the initial two-day priming, we replaced the first set of 3 small molecules (LDN193189, SB431542 and TTNPB) with a second set of small molecules including CHIR99021 (1.5. mu.M), DAPT (5. mu.M) and VPA (0.5 mM). CHIR99021 is an inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase 3(GSK 3). GSK3 signaling promotes neural progenitor cell homeostasis and neocortical neural induction. DAPT (N- [ N- (3, 5-difluorophenylacetyl) -L-alanyl ] -S-phenylglycine tert-butyl ester), a gamma-secretase inhibitor that indirectly inhibits the notch signaling pathway, effectively induces neural differentiation of progenitor cells. VPA (valproic acid) is a histone deacetylase inhibitor, promoting histone acetylation. VPA was only included in reprogramming media for 2 days, as longer exposure increased cell death, whereas CHIR99021 and DAPT were present on days 3 to 6. On days 7 to 8, we used SAG (0.1 μ M) and 2,6, 9-trisubstituted purine (Purmo, 0.1 μ M), two agonists used to activate the sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling pathway, to complete the reprogramming process. Shh signaling is a key determinant of CNS patterns. SAG and Purmo or Shh have been used per se to induce neuronal differentiation of pluripotent stem cells. On day 9, we removed SAG and Purmo from the medium and replaced with neurotrophic factors (BDNF, NT3 and IGF-1) to promote neuronal maturation following astrocyte-neuron transformation. This successful reprogramming strategy is shown in FIG. 1A.

Before reprogramming, we characterized human astrocytes in our cultures and found that most cells were immunopositive for the astrocyte markers GFAP (79.3 + -4.9%) and Glt1 (astrocyte-specific glutamate transporter, 82.5 + -4.3%) and no neurons were detected (FIG. 1B-C). We found that there was little contamination of neural stem cells in human astrocyte cultures, as shown by SOx2, Musashi and immunostaining for nestin (FIG. 8A-B), probably due to the presence of 10% FBS in our culture medium, after one month of culturing human astrocytes in neurodifferentiation medium supplemented with growth factors (BDNF, NT3 and NGF), further confirmed that most cells were immunopositive for the astrocyte markers (S100 β, GFAP, glutamine synthetase, Glt1), but little for the neuron-positive or 2 cells (FIG. 8C-D), little for the astrocytes (DMSO + 8. D), and that we performed a control for the astrocytes in culture with no current flow in DMSO + the astrocyte medium, and no current flow was detected in the astrocyte cultures (DMSO + 8. DMSO + 1H + E), and no astrocyte cells were cultured with no functional current flowBy contrast, after sequential exposure to small molecules, we found a large number of neuron-like cells (FIGS. 1E-F) that were immunopositive for neuronal markers such as bisphysin (DCX), β -tubulin (Tuj1), MAP2, and NeuN (FIG. 1E-F). human astrocyte-transformed neurons survived for 4-5 months in our culture and developed robust axons and dendrites (FIG. 1G). to visualize the process of transformation from astrocytes to neurons, we infected human astrocytes with 1 μ l of a retrovirus encoding EGFP, so that only a small number of EGFP-positive astrocytes were observed in each coverslip (FIG. 9). We performed imaging over time to monitor morphological changes in human astrocytes. in human astrocytes in the absence of small molecules, human astrocytes did not change in morphology from day 0 to day 8 (FIG. 9A), and the presence of a further significant staining of the glial cell markers for glial markers AP (AP-positive astrocytes) from day 9 to day 9 + 7, as the time of GFN + 9, as the GFP-positive astrocytes did change from day 9, and as the GFC-positive astrocytes did change from day 9, and as the GFP-positive astrocytes after sequential exposure to the day 9, and the growth of the GFN-positive astrocytes, and the observation of the next imaging of the GFP-positive astrocytes, the cells, the observation of the cells, the observation of the GFP, the cells, the observation of the cells, the observation of the cells, the observation of the⁺) And the astrocyte-neuron transformation process was traced (fig. 9E). GFP-tagged astrocytes were efficiently converted to NeuN 18 days after small molecule treatment⁺Neurons (68.7 ± 4.2%, fig. 1H, n ═ 5 batches); whereas no neurons were detected in the control group without small molecule treatment (fig. 9F-G). GFP retrovirus (88.5. + -. 3% LCN2:: GFP-labeled cells are GFAP) using LCN2: (see FIGS.: Fr.)⁺) Similar results were obtained with the tracer astrocyte-neuron transformation (FIGS. 9H-J), 54.4. + -. 5.3% LCN2:: GFP-labeled astrocytes became NeuN 18 days after small molecule treatment (n ═ 3 batches)⁺A neuron. The transformation efficiencies obtained by lineage tracing experiments were similar to the overall transformation efficiency induced by small molecule treatment (FIGS. 1I-J; control, 3.3. + -. 0.5% Tuj1)⁺N is 4 batches; MCM, 67.1. + -. 0.8% Tuj1⁺N is 4 batches; p is a radical of<0.0001, Student's t-test).

To investigate whether human astrocytes from different sources could be reprogrammed into neurons using the same small molecule protocol, we further tested human mesencephalic astrocytes and human spinal cord astrocytes from ScienCell. Interestingly, human mesencephalic astrocytes were efficiently reprogrammed to neurons using our stepwise 9-small molecule strategy (FIGS. 1K-M, 10A-F), whereas human spinal astrocytes could not be reprogrammed to neurons using the same protocol (data not shown). This result indicates that our chemical reprogramming protocol is more suitable for human brain-derived astrocytes. To further test whether our small molecule reprogramming strategy is universally applicable to human astrocytes from different sources, we purchased human astrocytes from Gibco and found that they can also be reprogrammed into neurons (fig. 10G-I). To ensure that our chemical reprogramming approach did not involve the re-differentiation of human astrocytes into neural progenitor cells, we monitored Sox2, nestin, Pax6, and Ki67 signals during chemical reprogramming on days 0 to 10 and compared them to neural progenitor cells (fig. 11). Although Sox2 showed some increase during reprogramming, the level of neural progenitor cells was never reached (fig. 11A, G). Nestin and Pax6 were not significantly increased during small molecule processing (fig. 11B-C, H-I). Ki 67-labeled proliferating cells were significantly reduced after small molecule treatment (FIG. 11D, J), indicating that there were no progenitor cells that could expand and produce neurons. Furthermore, when we labeled human astrocytes with BrdU before chemical treatment, many of the transformed neurons were BrdU positive (fig. 11E, K); however, when we labeled our cell cultures with BrdU at day 10 post small molecule treatment, essentially all transformed neurons were negative for BrdU (fig. 11F, K), indicating that all glial cell to neuron transformation occurred during the presence of small molecules. In summary, we have developed a successful strategy for chemical reprogramming of human astrocytes into neurons using defined small molecule combinations.

Example 2

This example demonstrates that small molecule transformed human neurons produced according to the present disclosure are fully functional in stimulating action potentials and releasing neurotransmitters. In particular, we found that small molecule transformed neurons survived for long periods of time (>5 months) and showed robust protruding points along the dendrites (fig. 2A). Similarly, neurons reprogrammed from midbrain human astrocytes and Gibco's human astrocytes also survived more than 2 months in culture, with many synaptic points along the dendrites (FIG. 10F, I). Patch clamp recordings showed significant sodium and potassium currents in astrocyte-transformed neurons and increased gradually during maturation of neurons (FIGS. 2B-E; 2 months: I)_Na＝1889±197Pa，n＝10；I_K2722 ± 263Pa, n is 10). These neurons were able to fire repetitive action potentials (fig. 2F). More importantly, small molecule transformed neurons showed robust spontaneous synaptic activity including excitatory postsynaptic current (EPSC; frequency 0.66 ± 0.14 Hz; amplitude 24.8 ± 8.2Pa, n ═ 15) (fig. 2G-H) and inhibitory postsynaptic current (IPSC; frequency 0.48 ± 0.21 Hz; amplitude 23.3 ± 6.3Pa, n ═ 2) (fig. 2I). Notably, human astrocyte-transformed neurons showed large periodic explosive activity abolished by TTX or DNQX 3 months after primary small molecule treatment (fig. 2J-L), suggesting that these neurons form a functional network and begin firing together in synchrony. To support this, we performed a double whole-cell recording and demonstrated that two adjacent neurons showed synchronous burst activity (fig. 2M). Furthermore, we used Fura-2Ca²⁺Ratiometric imaging and recording of synchronous Ca in chemically reprogrammed neurons²⁺Spike (fig. 2N), indicating that these neurons have been functionally networked together. Thus, human astrocytes can be chemically reprogrammed with defined small molecules into fully functional neurons.

Example 3

This example demonstrates that the small molecules described herein reprogram human astrocytes into forebrain glutamatergic neurons. To characterize small molecule-induced reprogrammed neuronal properties, we examined neuronal markers expressed from the anterior to posterior nervous system. We found that most human astrocyte-transformed neurons were immunopositive for the forebrain marker FoxG1 (97.1 ± 1.1%, fig. 3A, n ═ 3 batches), but negative for the hindbrain and spinal cord markers HoxB4 and HoxC9 (fig. 3B-C, n ═ 3 batches). We next performed a series of immunostaining with various cortical neuronal markers. We found that human astrocyte-transformed neurons were mostly immuno-negative for the cortical superficial marker Cux1 (fig. 3D), but immuno-positive for the deep markers Ctip2 (fig. 3E, 71.4 ± 3%, n ═ 5 batches) and Otx1 (fig. 3F). Human astrocyte-transformed neurons were also immunopositive for the forebrain neuron marker Tbr1 (fig. 3G, 86.4 ± 3.4%, n ═ 3 batches) and the hippocampal neuron marker Prox1 (fig. 3H). Figure 3I shows the quantification results. Thus, our chemically reprogrammed neurons are mainly the deep forebrain neurons or the hippocampal neurons.

We further investigated the neuronal subtypes based on the neurotransmitters they contain. We found that most small molecule reprogrammed neurons were immunopositive for the glutamatergic neuronal marker VgluT1 (fig. 3J). A small fraction of transformed neurons were immunopositive for the gabaergic neuronal marker GAD67 (fig. 3K). Astrocyte-transformed neurons, on the other hand, were predominantly immuno-negative for the cholinergic marker VAChT (fig. 3L), the dopaminergic marker TH (fig. 3M), or the spinal motor neuron marker Isl1 (fig. 3N). The quantitative analysis of neuronal subtypes is shown in figure 3O. (Vglut1, 88.3 ± 4%, n ═ 4 batches; GAD67, 8.2 ± 1.5%, n ═ 4 batches). These results indicate that glutamatergic neurons are the major subtype using our small molecule reprogramming protocol. Different small molecules may be required to reprogram human astrocytes to other neuronal subtypes.

Example 4

This example demonstrates the activation of endogenous neural transcription factors during chemical reprogramming. To understand the molecular mechanism of chemical reprogramming, we first studied gene profile changes using a PCR array (Qiagen). On day 4 after small molecule treatment, we found up to a 300-fold significant increase in the transcription levels of several neural transcription factors including NGN1/2, NEUROD1 and ASCL1, as well as in the immature neuronal marker DCX (fig. 4A). The most significant change in transcription level at day 8 was the immature neuronal gene DCX, which showed a 2000-fold increase (fig. 4B), indicating that most of the newly transformed cells were immature neurons at the end of small molecule treatment. In contrast, glial cell-associated genes were typically down-regulated (fig. 4A-B). We then performed real-time quantitative PCR experiments to check for transcriptional changes in NGN2, NEUROD1 and astrocytic genes GFAP and ALDH1L1 over the course of time during chemical reprogramming (fig. 4C-F). Interestingly, we found that NGN2 transcription peaked at day 4 during small molecule treatment (fig. 4C), while NEUROD1 peaked at day 6 (fig. 4D), consistent with their sequential expression during early brain development. For glial genes, GFAP transcript levels were significantly reduced by more than 200-fold at D4 (fig. 4E), consistent with activation of neural transcription factors (fig. 4C-D). Similarly, the transcriptional level of another astrocytic gene, ALDH1L1, was also down-regulated (fig. 4F). In contrast, control experiments without small molecule treatment showed little transcriptional changes (FIGS. 12A-F). Thus, our small molecule treatment activates the neural transcription factor while inhibiting the astrocyte gene.

Example 5

This example provides a study as to whether epigenetic regulation is involved in our chemical reprogramming. DNA methylation in gene promoters affects the accessibility of transcription factor binding and therefore becomes a rate-limiting factor for reprogramming of pluripotent stem cells. We performed methylated DNA immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing (MeDIP-seq, methylated DNA co-immunoprecipitation sequencing) to examine the methylation level of the gene of interest before and after small molecule treatment. As expected, the promoter region of the GFAP gene in human astrocytes was initially unmethylated prior to small molecule treatment (D0), but a significant increase in methylation was detected 8 days after small molecule treatment (fig. 4G). This increased methylation was further confirmed by targeted bisulfite sequencing (BS-seq) (FIG. 4H). Notably, this GFAP promoter region contains the transcription factor binding sites of STAT3 and AP1 that have been shown to play a key role in activation of the GFAP gene. BS-seq data showed that the flanking sites of the STAT3 and AP1 binding regions are highly methylated (fig. 4H), which may explain why GFAP transcription was significantly down-regulated following small molecule treatment (fig. 4E). Our MeDIP-seq also showed an increase in DNA methylation of the GFAP Transcription Start Site (TSS) after small molecule treatment, which was also confirmed by BS-seq (FIG. 4I). In contrast to the glial cell gene GFAP, the neuronal gene NEFM (a mid-scale neurofilament gene specific for neurons) showed a decrease in methylation signals in the promoter region after small molecule treatment (fig. 4J-K), indicating activation of neuronal genes. We also investigated the epigenetic regulation of the transcription factor NGN2, an important gene involved in neuronal differentiation. The MeDIP-seq analysis showed that, consistent with previous reports (Covic et al, 2010), the methylation level of the NGN2 promoter region was fairly low before and after small molecule treatment (data not shown). In addition to DNA methylation, histone modifications can also regulate gene expression. Therefore, we further investigated histone modifications of the NGN2 promoter region and transcription start site (fig. 4L-O). Consistent with the use of the HDAC inhibitor VPA during chemical reprogramming, a significant increase in histone acetylation at D8 was observed (fig. 4M). Interestingly, H3K4me3 levels were significantly increased in the promoter region (fig. 4N), while at D8H3K27me3 levels were significantly decreased at the transcription initiation site (fig. 4O), consistent with small molecule treatment-induced transcriptional activation of NGN 2. Taken together, our findings suggest that our chemical reprogramming process involves both transcriptional and epigenetic regulation.

To confirm our transcriptional and epigenetic analysis, we further performed immunostaining to examine protein expression changes during chemical reprogramming (fig. 5). We found that the expression level of Ascl1 showed a significant increase for the first time after 2 days treatment with LDN193189, SB431542 and TTNPB (fig. 5A and G). The expression level of Ngn2 showed a peak at D4 after small molecule treatment (FIGS. 5B and H; in the presence of CHIR99021, DAPT and VPA). The expression of NeuroD1 appeared to be delayed compared to Ascl1 and Ngn2, with D6 peaking after small molecule treatment (fig. 5C and I), consistent with our transcriptional studies (fig. 4C-D). In addition, immunostaining experiments also showed that after peak expression of NeuroD1, some cells displayed neuronal markers such as DCX starting at D4-D6 (fig. 5D) and NeuN + neurons appearing at D8-D10 (fig. 5E and J). In contrast to the increase in neuronal markers, the astrocytic protein GFAP showed a significant decrease after small molecule treatment (fig. 5F and K), consistent with epigenetic silencing and transcriptional downregulation of the GFAP gene. Control astrocytes cultured for 10 days without small molecule treatment showed no great change in the expression level of the neural transcription factor, the neuronal protein NeuN or the astrocyte protein GFAP (fig. 13). These experiments indicate that our small molecule strategy has successfully activated endogenous neural transcription factors, which may play an important role in the reprogramming of astrocytes into neurons.

Example 6

This example describes the analysis of the functional role of each individual compound during chemical reprogramming. To dissect the contribution of each individual molecule to reprogramming, we performed a series of experiments by eliminating each individual compound from our cocktail pool (cocktail pool) (fig. 6). Removal of DAPT resulted in the most significant reduction in the number of transformed neurons compared to sequential exposure to a total of 9 molecules (fig. 6A-C). Similarly, removal of CHIR99021 or SB431542 or LDN193189 also significantly reduced reprogramming efficiency (fig. 6D-F). Removal of VPA or SAG + Purmo slightly reduced the reprogramming efficiency (FIGS. 6G-H). Interestingly, removal of Tzv or TTNPB had no significant effect on astrocyte-neuron reprogramming (fig. 6I-J). Figure 6K illustrates summary data of drug withdrawal experiments. Although it is not surprising that Tzv has no effect, primarily as a cell survival factor, it was surprising that removal of TTNPB had no effect. We include TTNPB because it is an agonist of retinoic acid receptors that has been found to play an important role in neural differentiation. The lack of TTNPB contribution suggests that retinoic acid may not be an essential factor in reprogramming astrocytes into neurons. Accordingly, the present disclosure includes the condition that the composition does not include TTNPB. On the other hand, inhibition of Notch signaling, GSK-3 β and BMP/TGF β signaling pathways appear to be important for reprogramming astrocytes into neurons. To ensure that these signaling pathways were indeed inhibited during our small molecule processing, we performed a series of immunostaining for phosphorylated SMAD1/5/9, Notch intracellular domain (NICD), and phosphorylated GSK3 β (fig. 12G-1). Our results show that BMP/TGF β, Notch and GSK3 β signaling pathways are significantly inhibited following small molecule treatment (fig. 12G-I), suggesting a close link between inhibition of these signaling pathways and astrocyte to neuronal transformation.

Example 7

This example provides demonstration of in vivo integration of human neurons in mouse brain after reprogramming. We further investigated whether human astrocyte-transformed neurons could survive in vivo in mouse brains. To distinguish human astrocyte-transformed neurons from pre-existing mouse neurons in the brain, we infected human astrocytes with EGFP-lentivirus prior to small molecule treatment, so that human astrocyte-transformed neurons were mostly EGFP-labeled (fig. 7A). At 14 days after the initial small molecule treatment, we harvested cells containing both transformed neurons and untransformed astrocytes and injected them into the lateral ventricle of neonatal mice (fig. 7A). At 7 days post cell injection (DPI), we found a cluster of EGFP-labeled cells in the lateral ventricle, all immunopositive to human nuclei (HuNu, fig. 7B), indicating that these cells originated from injected human cells. Importantly, we found that many EGFP-labeled human cells were immunopositive for the neuronal markers DCX (fig. 7B), MAP2 (fig. 7C), and NeuN (fig. 7D), indicating that human astrocyte-transformed neurons could survive in vivo in the mouse brain. Even one month after cell injection, we were still able to identify clusters of EGFP-labeled neurons in brain regions adjacent to lateral ventricles such as the thalamus and striatum (fig. 7E), suggesting that human astrocyte-transformed neurons may have migrated out of the lateral ventricles and integrated into local neural circuits. In support of this notion, we found that there were many synaptic points along the dendrites of EGFP + human neurons (fig. 7F), suggesting that these transplanted human neurons have established synaptic connections with host neurons. In summary, these in vivo experiments demonstrate that our small molecule reprogrammed human neurons can not only survive in the mouse brain, but also integrate into local neural circuits.

We also attempted to reprogram mouse astrocytes into neurons in vitro and in vivo using our small molecule strategy. We found that small molecule treated mouse astrocytes expressed more nestin signal in vivo than the solvent control group (fig. 14A-B). Thus, we isolated cortical tissue surrounding the small molecule injection region and cultured in vitro. Interestingly, small molecule treated cortical tissue produced more neurospheres than the solvent control (fig. 14C-H). These neurospheres can dissociate into neural stem cells and give rise to neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes (fig. 14I-J).

Example 8

This example provides a description of the materials and methods used to obtain the data of the present disclosure.

Human astrocyte cultures. Human astrocytes were purchased from ScienCell (HA1800, Calif.) or Gibco (N7805-100). Human astrocytes are primary cultures obtained from human fetal brain tissue. They were isolated and cultured in the presence of 10% Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS), which resulted in the differentiation of essentially any progenitor cells. Human astrocytes were subcultured when they exceeded 90% confluence. For theSubculturing, passing through TrypLE^TMSelect (Invitrogen) cells were trypsinized, centrifuged at 900rpm for 5 minutes, resuspended, and plated in media consisting of DMEM/F12(Gibco), 10% fetal bovine serum (Gibco), penicillin/streptomycin (Gibco), 3.5mM glucose (Sigma) supplemented with B27(Gibco), 10ng/ml epidermal growth factor (EGF, Invitrogen), and 10ng/ml fibroblast growth factor 2(FGF2, Invitrogen). Culturing the cells at 37 deg.C with 5% CO₂In the moist air of (2).

Human astrocytes were reprogrammed to neurons. Astrocytes were cultured on poly-D-lysine (Sigma) -coated coverslips (12mm) at a density of 50000 cells per coverslip in 24-well plates (BD Biosciences). Cells were cultured in human astrocyte medium to 90% confluency. On day 0 prior to reprogramming, half of the medium was replaced with N2 medium consisting of DMEM/F12(Gibco), penicillin/streptomycin (Gibco), and N2 supplement (Gibco). The following day (day 1), the medium was completely replaced with small molecule supplemented N2 medium or a control of N2 medium containing 1% DMSO. For most experiments using 9 molecules for reprogramming (MCM treatment), astrocytes were treated with TTNPB (0.5. mu.M, Tocris #0761), SB431542 (5. mu.M, Tocris #1614), LDN193189 (0.25. mu.M, Sigma # SML0559), and Thiazovivin (0.5. mu.M, Cayman #14245) for 2 days. On the third day, different sets of small molecule replacement media including CHIR99021 (1.5. mu.M, Tocris #4423), DAPT (5. mu.M, Sigma # D5942), VPA (0.5mM, Cayman #13033), and Thiazovivin (0.5. mu.M) were used. On day 5, VPA was withdrawn by replacing medium containing only CHIR99021 (1.5. mu.M), DAPT (5. mu.M) and Thiazovivin (0.5. mu.M). On day 7, medium containing SAG (0.1. mu.M, Cayman #11914), 2,6, 9-trisubstituted purine (Purmo, 0.1. mu.M, Cayman #10009634) and Thiazovivin (0.5. mu.M) was used for replacement. On day 9, the medium was replaced in its entirety with Neuronal Differentiation Medium (NDM) containing DMEM/F12(Gibco), 0.5% FBS (Gibco), 3.5mM glucose (Sigma), penicillin/streptomycin (Gibco) and N2 supplement (Gibco). 200l of neuronal differentiation medium were added to each well weekly to keep the osmotic pressure constant. To promote synaptic maturation of transformed neurons, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF, 20ng/ml, Invitrogen), insulin-like growth factor 1(IGF-1, 10ng/ml, Invitrogen), and neurotrophin 3(NT-3, 10ng/ml, Invitrogen) were added to the neuronal differentiation medium on day 9 and updated every four days until day 30 (Song et al, 2002).

To examine whether our human astrocytes contain any neural stem cells, we cultured human astrocytes in neuronal differentiation medium supplemented with BDNF20ng/ml, NT 310 ng/ml and NGF 10ng/ml for 1 month. Growth factors are renewed every 3-4 days.

Human Neural Progenitor Cells (NPCs) derived from human pluripotent stem cells are gifts from the day Gage. NPC were cultured in poly-L-ornithine and laminin coated coverslips in neuronal proliferation medium containing DMEM/F12, penicillin/streptomycin, B27 supplement, N2 supplement, and FGF2(20ng/ml) (Gibco).

Data and statistical analysis. Cell counts were performed by taking images of several randomly selected fields on each coverslip and analyzing by Image J software. The fluorescence intensity was analyzed by Image J software. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. The Student t-test was used to compare two sets of data. One-way anova and post hoc tests were used for statistical analysis of multiple sets of data.

Transplantation of small molecule transformed human neurons in vivo. In vivo experiments were performed with wild type C57/BL6 mice. Mice were housed in a 12-hour light/dark cycle and provided sufficient food and water. The experimental protocol was approved by the university of pennsylvania state IACUC and was in accordance with national institutes of health guidelines.

Human astrocytes cultured in T25 flasks were transduced with 10. mu.l of FUGW-GFP lentiviral suspension for high-efficiency infection. One day after virus transduction, cells were dissociated with TrypLE and plated on poly-D-lysine coated coverslips in 24-well plates at a density of 50000 cells per coverslip. When the cells reached 90% confluence, about 70% of the cells wereAt day 14 after primary small molecule treatment, a mixture of human astrocytes and transformed neurons was dissociated with Accutase (Gibco) and resuspended in 20. mu.l of neuronal differentiation medium supplemented with 10ng/ml BDNF, 10ng/ml NT3, and 10ng/ml IGF-1, 2 × 10⁵The cell suspension of individual cells was injected into the lateral ventricles of newborn mouse pups (postnatal day 1, P1) with 2 μ l per hemisphere. Using a stereotaxic apparatus (Hamilton), cells were injected 1.5mm in front of and 1.5mm to the side of the herringbone tip (lambda) and at a depth of 1 mm. Brains were collected for analysis 7, 11, 14 days and 1 month after injection.

Immunocytochemistry. For brain section staining, mice were anesthetized with 2.5% Avertin (Avertin) and then with ice-cold protocol including: 124mM NaCl, 26mM NaHCO₃10mM glucose, 1.3mM MgSO₄、1.25mM NaH₂PO₄、2.5mMKCl、2.5mM CaCl₂Artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) perfusion. Brains were removed and fixed in 4% Paraformaldehyde (PFA) overnight at 4 ℃. From young mice (<1 month old) was dehydrated with 30% sucrose for 2 days and cut in 50 μm sections with a cryostat (Leica). Adult mice (A)>1 month old) were cut in 45 μm sections by a vibrating microtome (Leica). Coronal brain sections were incubated in 2.5% normal goat serum, 2.5% normal donkey serum, and 0.3% Triton X-100 in phosphate buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4) for 2 hours, followed by overnight incubation in primary antibody.

For cell culture staining, cultures were fixed in 4% PFA in PBS for 15 min at room temperature. Cells were first washed three times with PBS and then incubated for 30 minutes in 2.5% normal goat serum, 2.5% normal donkey serum, and 0.1% TritonX-100 in PBS. Primary antibody and brain sections or cultures were incubated overnight at 4 ℃ in 3% normal goat serum, 2% normal donkey serum and 0.1% TritonX-100 in PBS. After another wash in PBS, the samples were incubated for 1h at room temperature with appropriate secondary antibodies conjugated to AlexaFluor 488, Alexa 546, Alexa 647(1:800, molecular probe), FITC, TRITC or Dylight (1:500, Jackson ImmunoResearch) and then washed extensively in PBS. The coverslips were finally mounted on slides using a fixative solution with anti-fading containing dapi (invitrogen). Slides were analyzed by fluorescence microscopy (Keyence BZ-9000) or confocal microscopy (Olympus FV 1000). Z-stack digital images were acquired and analyzed using FV10-ASW3.0viewer software (Olympus).

Electrophysiology. For human astrocyte-transformed neurons, whole-cell recordings were performed using multiclad 700A patch clamp amplifiers (Molecular Devices, Palo Alto, Calif.) using known techniques. The reagent is prepared from 128mM NaCl, 30mM glucose, 25mM HEPES, 5mM KCl and 2mM CaCl₂And 1mM MgCl₂The formed bath liquid is continuously filled into a recording room. The bath pH solution was adjusted to 7.3 with NaOH and the osmotic pressure was 315-325 mOsm/L. The patch pipette was pulled from borosilicate glass (4-6 M.OMEGA.) and filled with a solution of 10mM KCl, 125mM potassium gluconate, 5mM creatine phosphate sodium, 10mM HEPES, 2mM EGTA, 4mM MgATP and 0.5mM Na₂Pipette solutions of GTP, pH 7.3 adjusted with KOH. The series resistance is typically 10-25M Ω. For voltage clamp experiments, membrane potential was typically maintained at-70 mV, except that the pinning potential was set at 0mV when IPSC was recorded. The drug is administered by a gravity driven drug delivery system (VC-6, Harvard Apparatus, Hamden, CT). To monitor gap junctions between human astrocytes, 2mM sulforhodamine b (srb) dye (MW 559Da) was added to the pipette solution.

Data were acquired using pCamp 9 software (Molecular Devices, Palo Alto, Calif.), sampled at 10kHz and filtered at 1 kHz. Na + and K + currents and action potentials were analyzed using pClamp 9Clampfit software. Spontaneous synaptic activity was analyzed using MiniAnalysis software (Synaptosoft, Decatur, GA). All experiments were performed at room temperature (22-24 ℃).

RNA extraction

D0, 2,4, 6 and 10 during chemical treatment, useRNA kit from human skinRNA was extracted from layer astrocytes. For each well of the 24-well plate, 350. mu.l of lysis buffer was added and cell lysates were collected. By usingRNA purification was performed on an RNA column using 40. mu.l RNase-free H₂O elution, resulting in RNA concentrations of 100 to 300 ng/. mu.l per well. RNA concentration was measured using NanoDrop and RNA quality was checked. A of all isolated RNAs₂₆₀/A₂₈₀The ratio was between 2 and 2.1, indicating RNA purity. The isolated RNA was stored at-80 ℃.

Cdnas Synthesis and quantitative real-time PCR

For real-time quantitative PCR (Qrt-PCR), Cdnas synthesis was performed using Quanta Biosciences qScriptTM CdnaSuperMix. For each sample, 1. mu.g of RNA was used per 20. mu.l total reaction volume. The reaction mixture was incubated at 25 ℃ for 5 minutes, 42 ℃ for 30 minutes, 85 ℃ for 5 minutes, and held at 4 ℃. H without RNase/DNase for Cdna product₂Dilution by 5 times with O. The Primer sets were designed using Applied Biosystems Primer Express software and are listed in table 2. RT-Qpcr Using Quanta BiosciencesGreen SuperMix，ROX^TMThe process is carried out. Applied using real-time cyclersStepOnePlus^TM. A final reaction volume of 25. mu.l was used with 5. mu.l of Cdna corresponding to 1. mu.g of total RNA. 40 PCR cycles of 95 ℃ for 15 seconds and 65 ℃ for 45 seconds were performed for amplification. Melting curve analysis was performed after PCR cycling. The comparative Ct method was used to quantify and calculate gene expression fold change. GAPDH was used as an internal control gene, and relative gene expression was analyzed relative to that of the control human astrocyte group on day 0. There were three replicate PCR reactions for each sample RT-Qpcr data.

PCR array

Before the treatment of the small molecules (D0)Later (D4 and D8), RT was performed on human astrocytes²Analyzer PCR array (Qiagen, PAHS-404 ZC-12). Using QIAGEN RT²First Strand Kit (Qiagen #330401) from isolated RNA (usingRNA kit) to synthesize Cdna. For each 96-well PCR array plate, 0.5. mu.g of total RNA was mixed with 19.5. mu.l of the reverse transcription mixture and incubated at 42 ℃ for 15 minutes and then at 95 ℃ for 5 minutes. Mu.l of the Cdna product was mixed with 81. mu.l of RNase-free H₂And (4) diluting with oxygen. For each 96-well PCR array plate, 101. mu.l of diluted Cdnas were mixed with RT²SYBRGreen Qpcr mastermix (Qiagen #330522) was mixed to reach a total volume of 2700. mu.l. Transfer 25. mu.l of Qpcr mix to each well of the PCR array plate. Real-time cycler AppliedStepOnePlus^TMUsed for PCR reaction and data collection. 40 cycles of 95 ℃ for 15 seconds and 60 ℃ for 1 minute were performed, followed by melting curve analysis. In the same analysis, for all RTs²The analyzer PCR Array run sets the gene threshold to the same value. Using QIAGENRT²Profiler PCR Array data analysis software version 3.5 was used for quantification. Gene expression of D0 was set as a control.

Virus production

Pcag: GFP-IRES-GFP retroviral vector is a gift from the Fred Gage doctor (Salk Institute, Calif.). The human GFAP promoter gene was subcloned from the Hgfap promoter-Cre-MP-1 (Addge) and the CAG promoter was replaced to generate Pgfap:: GFP-IRES-GFP retroviral vector (Guo et al, 2014). The mouse LCN2 promoter sequence was subcloned from the mouse genome and replaced the CAG promoter to generate Plcn 2:GFP-IRES-GFP retroviral vectors. The FUGW-EGFP lentiviral vector was generously provided by Roger Nicoll, doctor (California university, san Francisco, USA). Packaging retroviral particles in gpg helperfree HEK (human embryonic kidney) cells to produce VSV-G (vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein) -pseudotype as described previouslyRetroviruses (Guo et al, 2014; Tashiro et al, 2006). As previously described, lentiviral particles were packaged in HEK293T cells (Naldini et al, 1996). The titer of the viral particles, determined after HEK cell transduction, was about 10⁸Particles/ml.

Imaging over time

Human astrocytes cultured in T25 flasks were transduced with 1. mu.l of Pcag:, GFP-IRES-GFP retroviral suspension. At2 hours after viral transduction, cells were dissociated with TrypLE and plated on poly-D-lysine coated coverslips at a density of 50000 cells per coverslip in 24-well plates. Only 1 or 2 clusters of GFP positive cells were found in each well on day 0. One GFP positive cluster was imaged under fluorescence microscopy (Nikon TE-2000-S) on days 0, 2,4, 6, 8 and 10, either without or with small molecule treatment, as described above. To visualize the reprogramming process induced by sequential application of 9 molecules, images were taken at each time point before changing the medium containing the next set of small molecules.

Pedigree tracing experiment

Human astrocytes were cultured on poly-D-lysine coated coverslips and infected overnight with 2. mu.l of Pgfap:: GFP-IRES-GFP retroviral suspension. For Plcn 2:GFP-IRES-GFP retroviral infection, cultured human astrocytes were pretreated with 100ng/ml Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to make them reactive and express LCN 2. Cells infected with retroviruses were then treated with small molecules or 1% DMSO. Cells were cultured for 18 days and then fixed for immunostaining.

BrdU date of birth assay

Human dermal astrocytes were incubated with 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) at a final concentration of 10. mu.M for 12 hours 1 day prior to small molecule treatment. The following day, the BrdU-containing medium was completely removed and fresh human astrocyte medium was carefully added to the culture. About 70-80% of human astrocytes were labeled with BrdU at D0. BrdU-labeled human astrocytes were treated with small molecules and fixed at day 30 after the initial small molecule treatment. In another set, 10 μ M BrdU was added to neural differentiation media on day 10 after small molecule treatment and refreshed every 3-4 days until day 30. On day 30, the cells were fixed with 4% PFA for 15 min at room temperature, followed by treatment with 2M HCl for 20 min at 37 ℃ to denature the DNA. After 5 washes with PBS, cells were blocked in blocking buffer (2.5% normal donkey serum, 2.5% normal goat serum, 0.1% Triton in PBS) for 1 hour at room temperature, and then incubated overnight at 4 ℃ in anti-BrdU primary antibody (Dako, 1: 500).

Calcium imaging

The calcium indicator Fura-2AM (Life technology) was loaded into cells by incubating human astrocyte-transformed neurons in medium containing Fura-2AM (2. mu.g/ml) for 30 minutes in an incubator (37 ℃). The calcium concentration in plasma was monitored using a Nikon20 × Super Fluor objective (NA 0.75), Hamamatsu ORCA-ER digital camera (Hamamatsu, salt field, japan) and a Sutter DG5 optical switch for rapid change of excitation wavelength (Sutter Instrument, Novato, CA). Data collection and analysis were performed using Simple PCI software from Hamamatsu.

Methylated DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP) and high throughput sequencing

The MeDIP experiments were performed according to the manufacturer's protocol (Active Motif). The enriched methylated DNA was purified using Qiagen DNA purification kit for Library preparation using NEBNext ChIP-Seq Library PrepReagent Set for Illumina according to the manufacturer's protocol. Briefly, 25ng of input genomic DNA or experimentally enriched DNA was used for each library construction. After ligation of the linker, a DNA fragment of 150-and 300-bp was selected using AMPure XP beads (Beckman Coulter). Agilent 2100BioAnalyzer was used to quantify amplified DNA using Qpcr to accurately quantify library concentrations. 20Pm diluted library for sequencing. A 50-cycle single-ended sequence was performed using Illumina HISeq 2000. Image processing and sequence extraction were performed using a standard Illumina internal flow (pipeline).

Targeted BS-seq

The DNA samples were applied to the epitec bisulphite kit (Qiagen) according to the supplier's instructions. The PCR amplicons were then purified using Ampure XP beads and eluted at 50. mu. l H₂Concentration was quantified using the Qubit HighSensitivity kit, then each sample was pooled at equal molar concentrations.the mixed amplicons were then subjected to library preparation and Miseq depth sequencing (100 × or deeper) according to standard procedures recommended by Illumina.

To determine the DNA Methylation status of the GFAP transcription start site, genomic DNA was treated with sodium bisulfite using the EZ DNA Methylation-Gold kit (Zymo Research) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Bisulfite converted DNA was amplified using nested PCR. The purified PCR amplicons were then ligated into the TOPO-TA vector (Invitrogen). The reconstituted plasmid was purified and individual clones were sequenced. From each time point, 10 clones were randomly picked. Data were from 2 independent experiments.

Bioinformatics analysis

Bioinformatic analysis of MeDIP-seq was performed using known techniques. Briefly, the FASTQ sequence files were aligned to HG19 reference genome using Bowtie. Peaks were identified by model-based analysis of the ChIP-seq (MACS) software.

For BS-seq, the double-ended reads were first pre-processed using Trimmomatic 0.20 to remove the linker sequence and low quality sequences at the 3 'and 5' ends. The C aligned to the site of our interest in the pre-treated reads was then converted to a sequence of T and G converted to A using Bowtie 0.12.9(-m1-130-n0-e 90-X550). Only unique alignment reads were retained and PCR repeats were deleted using MarkDuplicates (Picard Tools 1.82). To avoid counting the reference locations covered by overlapping double-ended reads, the overlap regions are clipped off, leaving the overlap regions with higher quality. The original computationally transformed C and G are recovered and the C reads and T reads for each reference cytosine position are counted using SAMTools mpileup.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) -quantitative PCR

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) experiments were performed using routine methods with minor changes. Briefly, cultured human astrocytes before and after small molecule treatment were fixed with 1% formaldehyde for 10 minutes and quenched with 0.125M glycine for 5 minutes. Chromatin was sonicated to a range of 300-base pair fragments with a Bioruptor (Diagenode Inc.). Following the ChIP procedure, eluted DNA samples were purified using a DNA cleaning and concentration kit (Zymo research). The degree of enrichment was determined by Qpcr and normalized to the total input.

Stereotactic injection of small molecules into mouse brain

Brain surgery was performed on 2-month old wild-type C57BL6 mice. Mice were anesthetized by injecting 20mL/kg of 0.25% Avertin (a mixture of 25mg/mL tribromoethanol and 25. mu.l/mL tert-amyl alcohol) into the peritoneum, then placed in a stereotactic apparatus. Artificial eye ointments are used to cover and protect the eyes. Animals were subjected to midline scalp incision and drilling operations on the skull above the sensory cortex of the body. Each mouse received a single injection of a small molecule cocktail or PBS containing 6% DMSO (coordinates: AP 1.25mm, ML 1.4mm, DV-1.5mm) using a 2. mu.l syringe and a 34-gauge needle. The injection volume and flow rate were controlled to 2. mu.l at 0.2. mu.l/min. After injection, the needle was held for at least 5 minutes and then slowly removed.

In vitro cell suspension culture

6 days after small molecule injection (dpi) for exposure to CO₂The animals were sacrificed by cutting the brain, isolating cortical brain tissue about 1.5mm around the injection site, cutting into 0.1 × 0.1mm pieces, treating with 0.5% trypsin (Gibco) for 30 minutes at 37 ℃, then centrifuging at 900G for 8 minutes, suspending the cell pellet with neuronal proliferation medium basis weight supplemented with 20ng/ml FGF2 and 20ng/ml EGF, and inoculating about 100 cells in 10ml of medium into 6 well plates with ultra-low attachment surface (Corning #3471), growth factors were renewed every 2-3 days, one week after the initial inoculation, observing the nervesSpheres and counting under 10-fold microscope (Nikon.) for subculture (subculture), one week old primary neurospheres were collected by centrifugation at 900G for 3 minutes and incubated at 37 ℃ for 5 minutes using cell digest (Gibco). cell pellets were centrifuged at 900G for 5 minutes and ground into single cells, then suspended in neuronal proliferation medium 3 days after subculture, secondary neurospheres were observed and counted under 10 × microscope for monolayer culture, 4 day old secondary neurospheres were trypsinized and resuspended according to the above protocol PFA single cells were seeded on poly-L-ornithine/laminin coated glass coverslips and cultured with 20ng/ml FGF2 and 20ng/ml EGF neuronal proliferation medium fusion when cells reached 60-70% fusion, cells were fixed with 4% or fused with DMEM/F12, 5% FBS, 50mg/ml NaHCO 2₃And penicillin/streptomycin in neuronal differentiation medium or glial medium.

The following primary antibodies were used in this study:

polyclonal anti-green fluorescent protein (GFP, chicken, 1:1000, Abcam, AB13970), polyclonal anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP, rabbit, 1:1000, Abcam, Z0334), polyclonal anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP, chicken, 1:1000, Millipore, AB5541), monoclonal anti-S100 beta (mouse, 1:800, Abcam, AB66028), polyclonal anti-vesicular glutamate transporter 1(vGluT1, rabbit, 1:1000, synoptic Systems), polyclonal anti-vesicular glutamate transporter (SV2, mouse, 1:2000, development and research hybridoma bank, Iowa), polyclonal anti-microtubule-related protein 2(MAP2, chicken, 1:2000, Abcam, AB 2), polyclonal anti-T-box, brain, 1(polyclonal anti-T-box, 1, Tbr1, Abcam, AB-B36940, rabbit 31101, Rabbit 102, Rabbit AB-102, Rabbit AB-Abcam, Abcam-102, Abcam-100, Abcam-1, Abcam-No. 1,1: 500, Neuromics, RA14128), monoclonal anti-SRY (sex-determining region Y) -box2(Sox-2, mouse, 1:500, Abcam, AB79351), polyclonal anti-SRY (sex-determining region Y) -box2(Sox-2, rabbit, 1:500, Millipore, AB5603), monoclonal anti-Biii tubulin (Tuj1, mouse, 1:1000, COVANCE, MMS-435P), polyclonal anti-dipcortin (DCX, rabbit, 1:500, Abcam, AB18723), polyclonal anti-NeuN (rabbit, 1:1000, Millipore, ABN78), monoclonal anti-NG 2 (mouse, 1:200, Abcam, AB50009), monoclonal anti-SMI-neurofilament markers (SMI312, 1:1000, mouse, COVANCE, SMI-312R), polyclonal anti-glial proteins (GLcAm-1, AB-39389), monoclonal anti-mouse (GLURoSer 1, mouse, Abcam, Ab-3983, mouse-1: 1764, mouse-3875, mouse-ubiquitin-3873, mouse-1, mouse-387 3, abcam, ab60704), monoclonal anti-human nuclei (HuNu, mouse, 1:1000, Millipore, MAB1281), monoclonal anti-synaptic vesicle protein (mouse, 1:800, Millipore, MAB368), polyclonal anti-CDP (Cux1, rabbit, 1:500, Santa Cruz, sc-13024), monoclonal anti-Ctip 2 (rat, 1:600, Abcam, ab18465), anti-Otx 1 (mouse, 1:200, development of research hybridoma bank, iowa, Otx-5F5), anti-HoxC 9 (mouse, 1:200, development of research hybridoma bank, iowa, 5B5-2), anti-HoxB 4 (mouse, 1:200, development research hybridoma bank, iowa, I12 anti-Hoxb 4), polyclonal anti-FoxG 1 (goat, 1:1000, Abcam AB3394), polyclonal anti-vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT, guinea pig, 1:800, Millipore, AB1588), monoclonal anti-GAD 67 (mouse, 1:1000, Millipore, MAB5406), anti-Isl 1 (mouse, 1:200, development research hybridoma bank, Iowa City, 39.4D5), monoclonal anti-tyrosine hydroxylase (TH, mouse, 1:600, Millipore, MAB318), polyclonal anti-neuronal protein 2(Neurogenin2) (Ngn2, rabbit, 1:600, Abcam, ab26190), monoclonal anti-neuroD 1 (mouse, 1:800, Abcam, ab60704), polyclonal anti-MASH 1/Achatescute homolog 1(Ascl1, rabbit, Abcam, ab74065), monoclonal anti-nestin (mouse, 1:800, Neuromics, MO15056), polyclonal anti-Ki 67 (rabbit, 1:800, Abcam, 80), monoclonal anti-N200 (mouse, 1:1000, Sigma N0142), monoclonal anti-Ser 1, Ser 1: 5835, Ser 1: 15, Ser 1, Ser 1555), Ser 1, Ser 1555, Ser 1:800, Ser 1, Ser 1555, 1:100, Cellsignaling, 9323), monoclonal anti-phosphorylated Cell signaling molecule 1(Smad1) (Ser 463/465)/Cell signaling molecule 5(Smad5) (Ser 463/465)/Cell signaling molecule 9(Smad9) (Ser465/467) (D5B10) (rabbit, 1:600, Cell signaling, 13820), monoclonal anti-lytic Notch1(Val1744) (D3B8) (rabbit, 1:200, Cellsignaling, 4147), monoclonal anti-CNPase (mouse, 1 ab 800, Abcam, 6319), polyclonal anti-lipocalin-2/NGAL (LCN2, goat, 1:1000, R & D, AF 1857).

The following antibodies were used for pull-down DNA in CHIP assay: polyclonal anti-acetyl histone H3 (rabbit, Millipore, 06-599); polyclonal anti-trimethylhistone H3(Lys27) (H3K27Me3, rabbit, Millipore, 07-449); and polyclonal anti-H3K 4me3 (rabbit, Active Motif 39159).

Example 9

This example extends the foregoing disclosure and demonstrates that four drugs and even three drugs are sufficient to effect reprogramming of glial cells into neurons. In particular, this example demonstrates that reprogramming of human glial cells to functional neurons can be successfully achieved using a combination of SB431542(TGF- β inhibitor), LDN193189(BMP inhibitor), CHIR99021(GSK-3 inhibitor) and DAPT (gamma-secretase and Notch inhibitor). In addition, we also tested each of these four drugs in combination with other drugs with similar effects and demonstrated that they all can convert human astrocytes into neurons. Accordingly, the present disclosure includes reprogramming glial cells to neurons using a combination of drugs that act on one or a combination of the following signaling pathways: TGF-. beta.s, BMP, GSK-3, and the gamma-secretase/Notch signaling pathway.

The data presented in figures 15-19 show that various drugs with similar activity can be replaced, but still function to reprogram. Particular combinations that prove reprogrammable include: i) LDN193189/CHIR99021/DAPT, ii) SB431542/CHIR99021/DAPT, iii) LDN193189/DAPT/SB431542, and iv) LDN193189/CHIR99021/SB 431542. Furthermore, we demonstrate that LDN193189 can be replaced by its functional analogs Dorsomorphin and DMH 1; SB431542 can be replaced by Repsox or a 8301; CHIR99021 may be replaced by its functional analogues ARA014418 and SB 216763; while DAPT may be replaced by its functional analogues BMS906024 and RO 4929097. Thus, the present disclosure demonstrates that any three drug combinations from the group of SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT can reprogram human glial cells to neurons, while any one or more of the drugs in these combinations can be replaced by their functional analogs while reprogramming is still achieved.

While the invention has been described with respect to specific embodiments, routine modifications will be apparent to those skilled in the art and such modifications are intended to be within the scope of the invention.

Claims (15)

1. A method of producing neurons comprising contacting glial cells with a compound that collectively inhibits transforming growth factor beta (TGF- β), Bone Morphogenic Protein (BMP), glycogen synthase kinase 3(GSK-3), and gamma-secretase/Notch pathways in the glial cells.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound comprises at least three compounds selected from the group consisting of thiazovivin, LDN193189, SB431542, TTNPB, CHIR99021, DAPT, VPA, SAG, 2,6, 9-trisubstituted purines, functional analogs thereof, and combinations thereof.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein the at least three compounds are selected from the group consisting of SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT and functional analogs thereof.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the compound comprises i) LDN193189/CHIR99021/DAPT, ii) SB431542/CHIR99021/DAPT, iii) LDN193189/DAPT/SB431542, iv) LDN193189/CHIR99021/SB431542, or v) SB431542/CHIR 99021/DAPT; or the compound consists of i) LDN193189/CHIR99021/DAPT, ii) SB431542/CHIR 99021/DAPT; iii) LDN193189/DAPT/SB431542, iv) LDN193189/CHIR99021/SB431542, or v) SB431542/CHIR 99021/DAPT.

5. The method of claim 3, wherein the glial cells are reprogrammed to the neurons in the individual by administering to the individual one or more compositions comprising the compound.

6. The method of claim 4, wherein the glial cells are reprogrammed to the neurons in the subject by administering to the subject one or more compositions comprising the compound.

7. The method of claim 5, wherein the one or more compositions are administered to the individual orally.

8. The method of claim 5, wherein the one or more compositions comprise at least two of the compounds, and wherein at least one of the compounds is released from the pharmaceutical formulation at a time point that is different from the release of at least one other compound.

9. The method of claim 5, wherein at least one of LDN193189 and SB431542 is introduced into the individual in a first administration, and wherein at least one of CHIR99021 and DAPT is introduced into the individual in a subsequent administration.

10. The method of claim 5, wherein the individual is in need of the neurons due to a disorder comprising neuronal loss and/or glial scarring.

11. The method of claim 5, wherein the subject is in need of the neurons due to ischemic brain injury from stroke, hypoxia, or other brain trauma, or the subject has been diagnosed with or is suspected of having Alzheimer's disease or other neurodegenerative disorder.

12. The method of claim 6, wherein the compound comprises at least SB431542/CHIR 99021/DAPT.

13. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a combination of at least two of thiazovivin, LDN193189, SB431542, TTNPB, CHIR99021, DAPT, VPA, SAG, 2,6, 9-trisubstituted purines or functional analogs thereof, wherein the composition is for reprogramming a glial cell to a neuron.

14. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 13, comprising at least two of SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT, and/or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or functional analogue thereof.

15. An article of manufacture comprising a package and at least one container, the container comprising a pharmaceutical composition comprising a combination of at least two compounds selected from the group consisting of SB431542, LDN193189, CHIR99021 and DAPT or a functional analog or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, the package comprising printed information providing an indication that the pharmaceutical composition is for use in treating a condition, wherein the condition is associated with a lack of functional neurons.