HK1233379A1

HK1233379A1 - Photovoltaic power generation systems and methods regarding same

Info

Publication number: HK1233379A1
Application number: HK17106930.1A
Authority: HK
Inventors: R．米尔斯
Original assignee: 辉光能源公司
Priority date: 2014-03-03
Filing date: 2014-04-01
Publication date: 2018-01-26

Abstract

A solid fuel power source that provides at least one of electrical and thermal power comprising (i) at least one reaction cell for the catalysis of atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos, (ii) a chemical fuel mixture comprising at least two components chosen from: a source of H2O catalyst or H2O catalyst; a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; reactants to form the source of H2O catalyst or H2O catalyst and a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants to initiate the catalysis of atomic hydrogen; and a material to cause the fuel to be highly conductive, (iii) at least one set of electrodes that confine the fuel and an electrical power source that provides a short burst of low-voltage, high-current electrical energy to initiate rapid kinetics of the hydrino reaction and an energy gain due to forming hydrinos, (iv) a product recovery systems such as a vapor condensor, (v) a reloading system, (vi) at least one of hydration, thermal, chemical, and electrochemical systems to regenerate the fuel from the reaction products, (vii) a heat sink that accepts the heat from the power-producing reactions, (viii) a photovoltaic power converter comprising at least one of a concentrated solar power device, and at least one triple-junction photovoltaic cell, monocrystalline cell, polycrystalline cell, amorphous cell, string/ribbon silicon cell, multi-junction cell, homojunction cell, heterojunction cell, p-i-n device, thin-film cells, dye-sensitized cell, and an organic photovoltaic cell, and an antireflection coating, an optical impedance matching coating, and a protective coating.

Description

Photovoltaic power generation systems and related methods

Cross Reference to Related Applications

This application claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application No.61/947,019 filed 3/2014, U.S. provisional patent application No.61/949,271 filed 3/7/2014, U.S. provisional patent application No.61/968,839 filed 3/21/2014, and U.S. provisional patent application No.61/972,807 filed 3/31/2014, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation, and in particular, to systems, devices, and methods for power generation. More particularly, embodiments of the present disclosure relate to power generation devices and systems that generate photodynamic, plasma, and thermodynamic power and generate electricity via a photo-electric power converter, a plasma-electric power converter, a photon-electric power converter, or a thermal-electric power converter, and related methods. Additionally, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, devices, and methods that use ignition of water or water-based fuel sources to produce photo-power, mechanical power, electrical power, and/or thermal power using photovoltaic power converters. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in this disclosure.

Power generation can take many forms, utilizing power from the plasma. Successful commercialization of plasmas may depend on power generation systems that are capable of efficiently forming plasmas and subsequently harvesting the power of the generated plasmas.

A plasma may be formed during ignition of a particular fuel. These fuels may include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of electron band atoms is formed and high optical power can be released. The electrical converter of the present disclosure may utilize the high optical power of the plasma. The ions and excited atoms can recombine, undergo electronic relaxation, and emit optical power. Photovoltaic may be used to convert optical power to electricity.

Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system, comprising: a plurality of electrodes configured to transfer electrical power to the fuel to ignite the fuel to produce a plasma; a power source configured to deliver electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes; at least one photovoltaic power converter configured to receive at least a plurality of plasmonic photons.

In one embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system for generating at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising:

at least one container;

a reactant comprising:

a) at least one source of catalyst or containing nascent H₂A catalyst for O;

b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen;

c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; and

at least one set of electrodes for confining at least one hydrino reactant,

a power supply for delivering short pulses of high current electrical energy;

reloading the system;

at least one system for regenerating the initial reactants from the reaction products, and

at least one plasma-kinetic converter or at least one photovoltaic converter.

In an exemplary embodiment, a method of generating power may include: supplying fuel to a region between the plurality of electrodes; energizing the plurality of electrodes to ignite the fuel to form a plasma; converting the plurality of plasma photons into electrical power with a photovoltaic power converter; outputting at least a portion of the power.

In another exemplary embodiment, a method of generating power may include: supplying fuel to a region between the plurality of electrodes; energizing the plurality of electrodes to ignite the fuel to form a plasma; converting the plurality of plasma photons into thermal power with a photovoltaic power converter; outputting at least a portion of the power.

In an embodiment of the present disclosure, a generating motionThe method may include delivering a quantity of fuel to a fuel loading region, wherein the fuel loading region is located between a plurality of electrodes; applying a current to the plurality of electrodes to at least about 2,000A/cm²The current flowing through the fuel to ignite the fuel to produce at least one of plasma, light, and heat; receiving at least a portion of the light in the photovoltaic power converter; converting light into different forms of power using a photovoltaic power converter; outputting different forms of power.

In additional embodiments, the present disclosure relates to a water arc plasma power system, comprising: at least one closed reaction vessel; comprising H₂O source and H₂A reactant of at least one of O; at least one set of electrodes; for transferring H₂An initial high breakdown voltage of O and a power supply providing a subsequent high current; a heat exchanger system, wherein the power system generates arc plasma, light and thermal energy; at least one photovoltaic power converter.

Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system, comprising: at least about 2,000A/cm²Or at least about 5,000kW of power; a plurality of electrodes electrically coupled to the power source; a fuel loading region configured to receive a solid fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to transfer electrical power to the solid fuel to generate a plasma; at least one of a plasma power converter, a photovoltaic power converter, and a thermal-to-electric power converter configured to receive at least a portion of the plasma, photons, and/or heat generated by the reaction. Other embodiments relate to a power generation system, comprising: a plurality of electrodes; a fuel loading region located between the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive an electrically conductive fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to apply an electrical current to the electrically conductive fuel sufficient to ignite the electrically conductive fuel and generate at least one of a plasma and a thermodynamic force; a transfer mechanism for moving electrically conductive fuel into the fuel loading region; photovoltaic power converters for converting plasma photons into kinetic form, or for converting thermal power into electricity comprisingAt least one of a thermal-to-electrical converter of non-thermal form power, force or mechanical power. Other embodiments relate to a method of generating power, the method comprising: delivering a quantity of fuel to a fuel loading region, wherein the fuel loading region is located between a plurality of electrodes; applying a current to the plurality of electrodes to at least about 2,000A/cm²Flowing an electric current through the fuel to ignite the fuel to produce at least one of plasma, light, and heat; receiving at least a portion of the light in the photovoltaic power converter; converting light into a different form of power using the photovoltaic power converter; outputting different forms of power.

Further embodiments relate to a power generation system, comprising: a power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround a fuel, are electrically connected to the power source, are configured to receive an electrical current for igniting the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated by igniting the fuel into power in a non-plasma form. Also provided in this disclosure is a power generation system comprising: at least about 2,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround a fuel, are electrically connected to the power source, are configured to receive an electrical current for igniting the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated by igniting the fuel into power in a non-plasma form.

Other embodiments relate to a power generation system, comprising: at least about 5,000kW or at least about 2,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes comprises a compression mechanism; a fuel loading area configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel loading area is configured to receive fuelA fuel loading region surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel loading region, and wherein the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the power source and configured to supply power to fuel received in the fuel loading region to ignite the fuel; a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photons generated by igniting the fuel into non-photonic form of power. Other embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system, including: at least about 2,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes comprises a compression mechanism; a fuel loading region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel loading region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel loading region, and wherein the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the power source and configured to supply power to fuel received in the fuel loading region to ignite the fuel; a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area; and a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated by igniting the fuel into power in a non-plasma form.

Embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system, including: a plurality of electrodes; a fuel loading region surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to ignite the fuel located in the fuel loading region; a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area; a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photons generated by igniting the fuel into non-photonic form power; a removal system for removing a byproduct of the ignited fuel; and a regeneration system operably coupled to the removal system for recycling the removed byproducts of the ignited fuel to the removal systemIn the recycled fuel. Certain embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system, comprising: at least about 2,000A/cm²Or at least about 5,000kW of power; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel loading region configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply electrical power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when the fuel is received in the fuel loading region; a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area; a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert a plurality of photons generated by igniting the fuel into a non-photonic form of power. Some embodiments may further include: one or more of output power terminals operably coupled to the photovoltaic power converter; a power storage device; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least processes associated with the power generation system. Certain embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system, comprising: a power supply configured to output at least about 2,000A/cm²Or at least about 5,000kW of electricity; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround a fuel, are electrically connected to the power source, are configured to receive an electrical current for igniting the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel; a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photons generated by igniting the fuel into a different form of power.

Additional embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system, comprising: at least 5,000kW or at least about 2,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel loading region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel loading region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the electrodeA fuel to ignite the fuel when received in the fuel loading region; a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area; a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert a plurality of photons generated by igniting the fuel into a non-photonic form of power; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least processes associated with the power generation system. Other embodiments relate to a power generation system, comprising: at least 2,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel loading region configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply electrical power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when the fuel is received in the fuel loading region; a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area; a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated by igniting the fuel into power in a non-plasma form; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least processes associated with the power generation system.

Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system, comprising: at least about 5,000kW or at least about 2,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel loading region configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when the fuel is received in the fuel loading region, and wherein a pressure in the fuel loading region is a partial vacuum; a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area; a photovoltaic power converter configured to be produced by igniting the fuelThe resulting plasma is converted into a non-plasma form of power. Some embodiments may include one or more of the following additional features: the photovoltaic power converter may be located within a vacuum unit; the photovoltaic power converter may include at least one of an anti-reflective coating, a light-blocking matching coating, or a protective coating; the photovoltaic power converter may be operably coupled to a cleaning system configured to clean at least a portion of the photovoltaic power converter; the powered system may include an optical filter; the photovoltaic power converter may include at least one of a single crystal cell, a polycrystalline cell, an amorphous cell, a string/strip silicon cell, a multijunction cell, a homojunction cell, a heterojunction cell, a p-i-n device, a thin film cell, a dye-sensitized cell, and an organic photovoltaic cell; the photovoltaic power converter may comprise a multi-junction cell, wherein the multi-junction cell comprises at least one of an inverted cell, a vertical cell, a lattice-mismatched cell, a lattice-matched cell, a cell comprising a III-V semiconductor material.

Additionally, an exemplary embodiment relates to a system configured to generate power, the system comprising: a fuel source configured to supply fuel; a power source configured to supply electrical power; and at least one gear configured to receive the fuel and the electrical power, wherein the at least one gear selectively directs the electrical power to a localized area around the gear to ignite the fuel within the localized area. In some embodiments, the system may also have one or more of the following features: the fuel may comprise a powder; the at least one gear may comprise two gears; the at least one gear may include a first material and a second material having a lower electrical conductivity than the first material, the first material electrically coupled to the localized region; the local region may be adjacent to at least one of a tooth and a gap of the at least one gear. Other embodiments may use a support member instead of a gear, while other embodiments may use a gear and a support member. Some embodiments relate to a method of generating power, the method comprising: supplying fuel to the gear; rotating the gear to position at least some of the fuel at a region of the gear; supplying an electrical current to the gear to ignite the positioned fuel, generating energy; and converting at least some of the energy generated by the ignition into electricity. In some embodiments, rotating the gear may include rotating a first gear and a second gear, and supplying current may include supplying current to the first gear and the second gear.

Other embodiments relate to a power generation system, comprising: at least about 2,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source; a fuel loading region configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when the fuel is received in the fuel loading region, wherein a pressure in the fuel loading region is a partial vacuum; a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated by igniting the fuel into power in a non-plasma form.

Other embodiments relate to a power generating battery comprising: an outlet port coupled to a vacuum pump; a plurality of electrodes electrically coupled to a power source of at least 5,000 kW; a fuel loading region configured to receive a fuel containing a majority of H₂O, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to transfer electrical power to the water-based fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and a thermal power; a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of at least one of the arc plasma and the thermal power into electrical power. Additionally disclosed is a power generation system comprising: at least 5,000A/cm²The power supply of (1); a plurality of electrodes electrically coupled to the power source; a fuel loading region configured to receive a fuel containing a majority of H₂O, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to generate electricityTo the water-based fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and a thermal power; a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of at least one of the arc plasma and the thermal power into electrical power. In an embodiment, the power converter comprises a photovoltaic converter that converts photo-power to electricity.

Further embodiments relate to a method of generating power, the method comprising: loading fuel into a fuel loading region, wherein the fuel loading region comprises a plurality of electrodes; at least about 2,000A/cm²To the plurality of electrodes to ignite the fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and a thermal power; performing at least one of passing the arc plasma through a photovoltaic converter to generate electricity and passing the thermal power through a thermal-electric converter to generate electricity; outputting at least a portion of the generated power. Additionally disclosed is a power generation system comprising: a power source of at least 5,000 kW; a plurality of electrodes electrically coupled to the power source, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to transfer electrical power to a power source comprising a majority H₂O to generate thermal power; a heat exchanger configured to convert at least a portion of the thermal power into electricity; a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert at least a portion of the light into electrical power. Additionally, another embodiment relates to a power generation system, comprising: a power source of at least 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes comprises a compression mechanism; a fuel loading region configured to receive a fuel containing a majority of H₂O, wherein the fuel loading region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel loading region, and wherein the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the power source and configured to supply power to the water-based fuel received in the fuel loading region to ignite the fuel; a transfer mechanism for moving the water-based fuel into the fuel loading area; a photovoltaic power converter,configured to convert a plasma generated by igniting the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

Brief description of the drawings

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate some embodiments of the disclosure and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure. In the drawings:

fig. 1 is a schematic diagram of a SF-chi battery generator showing a plasma dynamics converter according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

Fig. 2A is a schematic diagram illustrating an SF-chi battery generator of a photovoltaic converter according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

Fig. 2B is an arc H illustrating a photovoltaic converter according to an embodiment of the present disclosure₂Schematic of an O plasma cell generator.

Fig. 3 is a schematic diagram of a grid-connected photovoltaic power generation system according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 4 is a schematic diagram of a hybrid photovoltaic power generation system according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 5 is a schematic diagram of a directly coupled photovoltaic power generation system, according to an example embodiment.

Fig. 6A is a schematic diagram of a DC photovoltaic power generation system according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 6B is a schematic diagram of an AC photovoltaic power generation system according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of an AC/DC photovoltaic power generation system according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 8 is a schematic diagram of an AC photovoltaic power generation system according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram of a photovoltaic power generation system according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram of a photovoltaic power generation system according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 11 is a schematic diagram of a photovoltaic power generation system according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 12 is a schematic diagram of a photovoltaic power generation system according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 13A is a schematic diagram of a photovoltaic power generation system with a photovoltaic power converter located in a different region from the reaction site, according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 13B is a schematic diagram of a photovoltaic power generation system with a photovoltaic power converter located in the same region as the reaction site, according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 14 is a schematic diagram of a system according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 15 is a schematic view of a gear according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 16 is an enlarged view of a gear according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 17 is an enlarged view of two gears according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 18A and 18B are side and lateral views of a gear tooth according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 19A and 19B are side and lateral views of a gear tooth according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 20A and 20B are side and lateral views of a gear tooth according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 21A and 21B are side and lateral views of a gear tooth according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 22A is an enlarged view of gear teeth and gaps according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 22B is an enlarged view of gear teeth and gaps according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 22C is an enlarged view of gear teeth and gaps according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 23A and 23B are cross-sectional views of a gear according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 24 is a schematic view of a motion system, according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 25 is a schematic view of a support member according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 26 is a cross-sectional view of a support member according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 27 is a cross-sectional view of a support member according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 28 is a schematic view of a support member according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 29 is a schematic view of a support member according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 30 is a schematic view of a support member according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 31A and 31B are lower views of a support member according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 32A to 32D are views of a contact element in operation according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 33 is a view of a support member in operation according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 34 is an enlarged cross-sectional view of a contact element according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 35A to 35D are views of a contact element in operation according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 36A to 36C are views of a contact element in operation according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 37A to 37C are views of a contact element in operation according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 38A to 38C are views of a contact element in operation according to an exemplary embodiment.

Fig. 39 is a schematic view of a contact element with a photovoltaic cell according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 40 is a normalized superposition of the visible spectra of the plasma source and the sun, demonstrating that both emit black body radiation of approximately 5800-6000K, according to an exemplary embodiment.

Disclosed herein are catalyst systems for releasing energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower energy states, wherein the electron shells are in a closer position relative to the core. The released power is utilized to generate electricity and, in addition, new hydrogen species and compounds are desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physical laws, requiring the catalyst to accept energy from hydrogen to undergo a corresponding energy release transition.

Classical physics gives a closed-form solution to hydrogen atoms, hydrogen anions, hydrogen molecular ions, and hydrogen molecules and predicts the corresponding species with fractional prime quantum numbers. Using Maxwell's system of equations, the structure of electrons evolves into a boundary value problem, where the electrons comprise the source current of the time-varying electromagnetic field during the transition, under the constraint that the electron cannot radiate energy in the 1-state at the boundary n. The reaction predicted by the solution of the H atom involves a resonant, non-radiative energy transfer from the otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to an energy-accepting catalyst to form hydrogen in a lower energy state than previously thought possible. In particular, classical physics predicts that atomic hydrogen will undergo a catalytic reaction with specific atoms, excimers, ions and divalent hydrogen anions, providing a potential energy E with atomic hydrogen_hReaction with a net enthalpy which is an integer multiple of 27.2eV, wherein E_hIs 1 Hartree. Specific species (e.g. He) that can be distinguished based on their known electronic energy levels⁺、Ar⁺、Sr⁺K, Li, HCl, NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent H₂O, nH (n is an integer)) need to be present with hydrogen atoms to catalyze the process. The reaction involves carrying out non-radiative energy transferFollowed by q 13.6eV continuum emission or delivery of q 13.6eV to hydrogen to form abnormally hot, excited state H and hydrogen atoms of lower energy than the unreacted atomic hydrogen corresponding to the fractional principal quantum number. That is, in the formula of the main energy level of hydrogen atoms:

n＝1,2,3,...(2)

wherein, α_HIs the Bohr radius of a hydrogen atom (52.947pm), e is the charge level of an electron,_ois the vacuum dielectric constant, fractional quantum number:

wherein p.ltoreq.137 is an integer (3)

The well-known parameter n in the reed-berg equation (Rydberg equation) for the hydrogen excited state is replaced by an integer and represents a low-energy hydrogen atom called "fractional hydrogen". Then, similar to the excited state with an analytical solution of maxwell's equations, the hydrino atoms also include electrons, protons, and photons. However, the latter electric field increases the bonding corresponding to energy-resolving adsorption, rather than decreasing the central field due to energy adsorption as in the excited state, and the resulting photon-electron reaction of the fractional hydrogen is stable, rather than radiative.

N-1 state of hydrogen and of hydrogenStates are non-radiative, but transitions between two non-radiative states (e.g., n-1 to n-1/2) can be made by non-radiative energy transfer. Hydrogen is a particular case of steady state given by equations (1) and (3), where the corresponding radius of hydrogen or fractional hydrogen atoms is given by:

wherein p is 1,2, 3. For energy conservation, energy must be transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst in units of

m·27.2eV,m＝1,2,3,4,....(5)

And the radius is transited toThe catalyst reaction involves two steps of energy release: non-radiative energy is transferred to the catalyst, followed by additional energy release as the radius decreases, until a corresponding stable final state. It is believed that the rate of catalysis increases as the net enthalpy of reaction more closely matches m.27.2 eV. It has been found that catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within + -10% (preferably + -5%) of m.27.2 eV are suitable for most applications. In the case where the hydrino atom is catalyzed to a lower energy state, the net enthalpy of reaction of m.27.2 eV (equation (5)) is corrected relationally by the same factor as the potential energy of the hydrino atom.

Thus, the overall reaction is given by:

Cat(^q+r)⁺+re^-→Cat^q++m·27.2eV (8)

the overall reaction is:

q, r, m and p are integers.With a radius of the hydrogen atom (corresponding to 1 in the denominator) and a central field equivalent to (m + p) times the proton,is of radius HCorresponding to steady state. As the electron experiences a distance from the radius of the hydrogen atom toIs accelerated radially, energy is released as characteristic light emission or third body kinetic energy. The transmission may be with a bit at [ (p + m)²-p²-2m]13.6eV orAnd to a longer wavelength version of euv continuum radiation. In addition to radiation, resonant kinetic energy transfer to form fast H can occur. Subsequent passage and background H₂Alternatively, the fast H is the direct product of H or fractional hydrogen used as a catalyst, where acceptance of the resonance energy transfer involves potential energy rather than ionization energy.

In the present disclosure, terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H catalytic reaction, catalyst when applicable to hydrogen, hydrino reaction to form hydrino, and hydrino formation reaction all refer to reactions such as the states in which equations (6) to (9) of the catalyst defined by equation (5) react with atomic H to form hydrogen having energy levels given by equations (1) and (3). When applied to reaction mixtures that perform catalytic action of H to H states or hydrino states having energy levels given by equations (1) and (3), corresponding terms such as hydrino reactant, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, hydrino-forming reactant, reactant that produces or forms low energy state hydrogen or hydrino are also used interchangeably.

The catalytic low energy hydrogen transition of the present disclosure requires a catalyst that receives energy from atomic H to cause the transition, which may be in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction of an integer m of the potential energy of the uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen (27.2 eV). The endothermic catalyst reaction may be an ionization that results from one or more electrons in a species such as an atom or ion (e.g., for Li → Li)²⁺M-3) and may also include a synergistic reaction of bond cleavage with ionization of one or more electrons from one or more of the partners of the incipient bond (e.g., for NaH → Na)²⁺+H，m＝2)。He⁺The catalyst criteria was fulfilled-chemical or physical treatment with enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of 27.2eV, as it ionizes at 54.417eV (i.e. 2 · 27.2 eV). An integer number of hydrogen atoms can also be used as a catalyst with an enthalpy that is an integer multiple of 27.2 eV. The hydrogen atom H (1/p) p ═ 1,2, 3.. 137 can undergo a further transition to the lower energy state given by equations (1) and (3), where the transition of 1 atom is catalyzed by one or more additional H atoms that resonantly non-radiatively accept m · 27.2eV with an inverse change in their potential energy. The overall general formula for the transition of H (1/p) to H (1/(m + p)) caused by the resonance transfer of m.27.2 eV to H (1/p') is expressed by:

H(1/p')+H(1/p)→H+H(1/(m+p))+[2pm+m²-p^'2+1]·13.6eV (10)

hydrogen atoms can be used as catalysts, where m ═ 1, m ═ 2, and m ═ 3 are for 1,2, or 3 atoms of the catalyst that each act as another atom. When abnormally fast H collides with a molecule to form 2H, the ratio of 2H for a two-atom catalyst can be high, where two areThe atom resonantly non-radiatively accepts 54.4eV from the third hydrogen atom of the collision partner. By the same mechanism, two heats H₂The collision of (3) provides 3H, which acts as a catalyst for the fourth hydrogen atom at 3.27.2 eV. EUV continues at 22.8nm and 10.1mn, and abnormalities are observed: (>100eV), a highly excited H-state, a product gas H, a balmer α line broadening, and a highly excited H-state₂(1/4), and large energy release, consistent with the predictions.

H (1/4) is the preferred hydrino state based on its multi-polarity and its formation selection rule. Thus, in the case of H (1/3) formation, the transition to H (1/4) can occur rapidly catalytically by H according to equation (10). Similarly, H (1/4) is a preferred state of catalyst energy greater than or equal to 81.6eV corresponding to m-3 in equation (5). In this case, the energy transfer to the catalyst comprises 81.6eV for the intermediate H × 1/4 forming equation (7) and an integer multiple of 27.2eV for the intermediate decay. For example, a catalyst with an enthalpy of 108.8eV may form H (1/4) by accepting 81.6eV and 27.2eV from H (1/4) decay energy of 122.4 eV. The remaining 95.2eV of decay energy is released into the environment, forming preferred state H (1/4), which subsequently reacts to form H₂(1/4)。

Suitable catalysts can thus provide a net positive enthalpy of reaction of m.27.2 eV. That is, the catalyst resonantly accepts non-radiative energy transfer from the hydrogen atoms and releases energy to the ambient to effect electron transitions to fractional quantum energy levels. As a result of the non-radiative energy transfer, the hydrogen atom becomes unstable, further emitting energy until it achieves a lower non-radiative energy state with a main energy level given by equations (1) and (3). Thus, the catalyst releases energy from the hydrogen atoms, with a concomitant reduction in the size of the hydrogen atoms (r)_n＝na_HWhere n is given by equation (3). For example, catalysts of H (n ═ 1) to H (n ═ 1/4) release 204eV and the hydrogen radius is from a_HIs reduced to

Catalyst product H (1/p) alsoCan react with electrons to form hydridoanion H^-(1/p), or both H (1/p), can react to form the corresponding molecular hydrido H₂(1/p). In particular, the catalyst product H (1/p) can also react with electrons to form a compound having a bond energy E_BOf (a) a novel hydride H^-(1/p)：

Wherein p is an integer>1，s＝1/2，Is the Planck constant in bar,. mu._oIs the magnetic permeability of a vacuum, m_eIs the mass of the electron, μ_eIs obtained byGiven a reduced electron mass, where m_pIs the mass of the proton, a_oIs Bohr radius, the ionic radius isAccording to equation (11), the ionization energy of the hydride is calculated to be 0.75418eV, and the experimental value is 6082.99. + -. 0.15cm^-1(0.75418 eV). The bond energy of the hydridohydride anion can be measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

NMR peaks shifted to high magnetic field are direct evidence of the presence of low-energy hydrogen with reduced radius relative to normal hydride anions and with increased antimagnetic shielding of protons. The displacements are given by the superposition of the diamagnetic field of the two electrons and the action of the photon field of amplitude p (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)):

wherein the first term applies to H^-Wherein for H^-(1/p), p is 1 and p is an integer>The predicted peak of the hydrino hydride is shifted abnormally to a high magnetic field relative to the normal hydride ion in embodiments, the peak is a high magnetic field for TMS^-，H，H₂Or H⁺NMR shift of at least one of (alone or including compound). The displacement may be greater than at least one of 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and-40 ppm. The range of absolute displacement relative to bare protons (where the displacement of TMS relative to bare protons is about-31.5 ppm) may be- (p29.9+ p) within a range of at least one of about + -5ppm, + -10 ppm, + -20 ppm, + -30 ppm, + -40ppm, + -50 ppm, + -60 ppm, + -70 ppm, + -80 ppm, + -90 ppm and + -100 ppm²2.74) ppm (equation (12)). The range of absolute displacement relative to an exposed proton may be- (p29.9+ p) in a range of about at least one of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%²1.59×10^-3) ppm (equation (12)). In another embodiment, the substrate protons are displaced to a high magnetic field due to the presence of hydrino species (such as hydrino atoms, hydride anions, or molecules) in a solid substrate (such as a substrate of hydroxide such as NaOH or KOH). Substrate protons (such as those of NaOH or KOH) can be exchanged. In embodiments, the shift will cause the matrix peak to reach a range of about-0.1 ppm to-5 ppm relative to TMS. NMR determination may include magic angle rotation¹H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MAS)¹H NMR)。

H (1/p) can react with a proton and two H (1/p) can react to form H separately₂(1/p)⁺And H₂(1/p). Under the limitation of non-radiation, Laplacian operators in elliptic coordinates are used for solving hydrogen molecule ions and molecule charges and current density functions, bond distances and energy.

Total energy E of hydrogen molecular ions having a central field of + pe at each focus of the molecular orbits of the prolate spheroid_TThe method comprises the following steps:

where p is an integer, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and μ is the reduced atomic mass. The total energy of a hydrogen molecule with a central field of + pe at each focus of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital is:

hydrogen molecule H₂Bond dissociation energy of (1/p) E_DIs the total energy and E of the corresponding hydrogen atom_TDifference of difference

E_D＝E(2H(1/p))-E_T(16)

Wherein the content of the first and second substances,

E(2H(1/p))＝-p²27.20eV (17)

e is given by equations (16) to (17) and (15)_D：

E_D＝-p²27.20eV-E_T

＝-p²27.20eV-(-p²31.351eV-p³0.326469eV) (18)

＝p²4.151eV+p³0.326469eV

H can be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)₂(1/p), wherein the ionization products other than the ionized electrons may be, for example, a mixture including two protons and electrons (hydrogen (H) atom, fractional hydrogen atom, molecular ion, hydrogen molecular ion, and H₂(1/p)⁺) Wherein the energy is displaceable by the matrix.

NMR of the catalytic product gas provides H₂(1/p) decisive testing of the theoretically predicted chemical shifts. In general, it is predicted that H results from the fractional radius in the elliptical coordinates₂(1/p) of¹H NM co-resonance is from H₂Is/are as follows¹The H NMR resonance is directed towards high magnetic fields, where the electrons are significantly closer to the nucleus. H is given by the superposition of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the action of the photon field of amplitude p₂(1/p) predicted Displacement(Mills GUTCP equation (11.415-11.416)):

wherein the first term applies to H₂Wherein for H₂(1/p), p is 1 and p is an integer>1. Absolute H of experiment₂The-28.0 ppm gas phase resonance shift coincides with the-28.01 ppm predicted absolute gas phase shift (equation (20)). Predicted peak of molecular hydriding relative to normal H₂Abnormally displaced toward a high magnetic field. In an embodiment, the peak is the high magnetic field of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS can be greater than the known common H^-，H，H₂Or H⁺NMR shift of at least one of (alone or including compound). The displacement may be greater than at least one of 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and-40 ppm. Range of absolute displacement relative to bare protons (where displacement of TMS is relativeAbout-31.5 ppm at bare protons) may be in the range of at least one of about + -5ppm, + -10 ppm, + -20 ppm, + -30 ppm, + -40ppm, + -50 ppm, + -60 ppm, + -70 ppm, + -80 ppm, + -90 ppm and + -100 ppm- (p28.01+ p)²2.56) ppm (equation (20)). The range of absolute displacement relative to an exposed proton may be- (p28.01+ p) in a range of about at least one of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%²1.49×10^-3) ppm (equation (20)).

Hydrogen donating molecule H₂(1/p) vibration energy E transitioning from upsilon-0 to upsilon-1_vibIs that

E_vib＝p²0.515902eV (21)

Wherein p is an integer.

Hydrogen donating molecule H₂(1/p) rotational energy E for transition from J to J +1_rotIs that

Where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. H was observed in electron beam excited molecules trapped in a gas in a solid matrix₂(1/4) rotating the emission.

Obtaining the p of the rotation energy from the inverse p correlation of the distance between the atomic nuclei and the corresponding influence on the inertia moment I²And (4) correlation. H₂(1/p) the predicted interatomic distance 2c' is

H can be measured by at least one of an electron beam excited emission spectrometer, a Raman spectrometer, a Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer₂(1/p) rotation and vibration energy. H₂(1/p) can be trapped in a matrix (such as MOH, MX and M)₂CO₃(M ═ base; X ═ halide) to make measurements.

I. Catalyst and process for preparing same

Predicted, He⁺、Ar⁺、Sr⁺Li, K, NaH, nH (n is an integer), H₂O are used as catalysts because they meet the catalyst criteria-chemical or physical treatment with enthalpy changes equal to integer multiples of the atomic hydrogen potential of 27.2 eV. Specifically, the catalytic system is provided by ionizing t electrons in an atom each to a continuum level such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately m · 27.2eV, where m is an integer. Further, other catalytic transitions may occur, such as in the case where H (1/2) is formed first:and the like. Once catalysis has begun, the hydrinos are further autocatalytic in a process known as disproportionation, where H or H (1/p) is used as the catalyst for another H or H (1/p ') (p can equal p').

Hydrogen and fractional hydrogen may be used as catalysts. The hydrogen atom H (1/p) p ═ 1,2, 3.. 137 can undergo a transition to the lower energy state given by equations (1) and (3), where the transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second atom resonantly non-radiatively accepting m · 27.2eV with an inverse change in its potential energy. The overall equation for the transition from H (1/p) to H (1/(m + p)) due to the resonance transfer of m.27.2 eV to H (1/p') is expressed by equation (10). Thus, a hydrogen atom may be used as a catalyst, where m ═ 1, m ═ 2, and m ═ 3 are for 1,2, or 3 atoms of the catalyst that each act as another atom. Only when the H density is high, the ratio of two atom or three atom catalyst cases will be predictable. However, high H densities are not common. The high hydrogen atom concentration allowed by 2H or 3H used as an energy acceptor for the third or fourth atom can be achieved in many cases (such as on the surface of the sun and stars, on metal surfaces supporting monolayers, in highly dissociated plasmas, especially in hydrogen evolving plasmas, due to temperature and gravity driven density). In addition, when heat is generatedH and H₂When 2H atoms are obtained by collision, the three-body H interaction is easy to realize. This event can often be present in a plasma with a large amount of abnormally fast H. This is evidenced by the unusual density of atomic H emissions. In these cases, energy transfer from a hydrogen atom to two other atoms within sufficient proximity, typically a few nanometers, via multipole coupling may occur. Then, the reaction between the three hydrogen atoms whereby two atoms resonantly and non-radiatively accept 54.4eV from the third hydrogen atom such that 2H acts as a catalyst is given by:

and the overall reaction is

Wherein the content of the first and second substances,having a radius of hydrogen atoms and a central field equal to 3 times the central field of protons,is the corresponding steady state of 1/3 with radius H. Because the electrons undergo radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogen atom to a radius of 1/3, which is this distance, energy is released as characteristic light emission or third body kinetic energy.

In relation to direct transition toIn another H atom catalyst reaction of state, 2H₂The thermal molecules collided and dissociated so that 3H atoms served as a catalyst for the fourth H atom at 3 · 27.2 eV. Then, the reaction between 4 hydrogen atoms whereby 3 atoms resonantly and non-radiatively accept 81.6eV from the fourth hydrogen atom so that 3H acts as a catalyst is given by:

and the overall reaction is

Predicted to be due to equation (28)The mesogenic resulting euv continuum radiation band has a short cutoff of 122.4eV (10.1nm) and extends to longer wavelengths. This continuous band was confirmed by experiment. In general, H-due to acceptance of m.27.2 eVGives an energy with a short cut-off wavelength and is given byAnd a continuous band extending to wavelengths longer than the corresponding cut-off:

in the astrological medium, the sun and white dwarf, a series of 10.1nm, 22.8nm and 91.2nm continuous spectrum hydrogen emissions is usually observed experimentally.

H₂The potential energy of O is 81.6eV (equation (43)) [ Mills GUT]. Then, through the same mechanism, nascent H₂O molecules (hydrogen bonded in a non-solid, liquid, or gaseous state) can be used as the catalyst (equations (44) to (47)). It was observed that the longer wavelength continuum radiation at 10.1nm and shifted to achieve the theoretically predicted H transition to low energy (the so-called "hydrino" state) was only caused by the pulsed sandwich hydrogen release first reproduced at BlackLight Power, inc. (BLP) and at Harvard Center for Astrophysics (CfA). It was observed that continuous irradiation in the 10 to 30m region matching the predicted transition of H to hydrino state was only caused by pulsed sandwich hydrogen release with metal oxides that are thermodynamically favored for undergoing H reduction to form a HOH catalyst; however, unfavourable ones do not show any continuum, even though the low melting point metals under test are very favorable for forming a metal ion plasma with a strongly short-wavelength continuum in a more powerful plasma source.

Alternatively, the resonant kinetic energy transfer forming a fast H can occur concurrently with the observation of an abnormal barmer α line broadening corresponding to a high kinetic energy H broadening. The energy transfer to 2H also causes pumping of the catalyst excited state, as given by exemplary equations (24), (28) and (47) and by resonant kinetic energy transfer, directly generating fast H.

Fraction hydrogen

The hydrogen atom having a bond energy is given by

Wherein p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 137, is the product of the H-catalyzed reaction of the present disclosure. The bond energy of an atom, ion or molecule, also referred to as ionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion or molecule. The hydrogen atoms having the bond energy given in equation (34) are hereinafter referred to as "fractional hydrogen atoms" or "fractional hydrogens". Radius ofIs namedWherein, a_HIs the radius of a common hydrogen atom and p is an integer. Having a radius a_HThe hydrogen atom of (a) is hereinafter referred to as "ordinary hydrogen atom" or "normal hydrogen atom". Common hydrogen atoms are characterized by their bond energies of 13.6 eV.

Formation of hydrino by ordinary hydrogen atoms with a suitable catalyst having the following net enthalpy of reaction

m·27.2eV(35)

Wherein m is an integer. It is believed that the rate of catalysis increases as the net enthalpy of reaction more closely matches m.27.2 eV. It has been found that catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within + -10%, preferably + -5%, of m.27.2 eV are suitable for most applications.

This catalytic action causes the release of energy from the hydrogen atoms, accompanied by a reduction in the size of the hydrogen atoms r_n＝na_H. For example, the catalytic action of H (n ═ 1) to H (n ═ 1/2) releases 40.8eV and the hydrogen radius is from a_HIs reduced toThe catalytic system is provided by ionizing t electrons in an atom to a continuum of energy levels such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately m.27.2 eV, where m is an integer. As a power source, the energy released during catalysis is much greater than the energy lost by the catalyst. The energy released is large compared to conventional chemical reactions. For example, water is formed when hydrogen and oxygen undergo combustion

When the known enthalpy of formation of water is the respective hydrogen atom Δ H_fEither-286 kJ/mole or 1.48 eV. In contrast, each (n ═ 1) common hydrogen atom undergoing catalysis releases a net enthalpy of 40.8 eV. In addition, other catalytic transitions can occur:and the like. Once catalysis begins, the hydrinos are further autocatalytic in a process known as disproportionation. This mechanism is similar to that of inorganic ion catalysis. However, due to the better matching of enthalpy to m.27.2 eV, the resulting hydrino catalysis should have a reaction rate higher than that of the inorganic ionic catalyst.

Hydrino catalyst and hydrino product

A hydrogen catalyst capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately m.27.2 eV to generate fractional hydrogen (whereby atoms or ions ionize into t electrons) is given in table 1, where m is an integer. The atoms or ions given in the first column are ionized providing a net enthalpy of reaction given in the tenth column of m.27.2 eV, where m is given in the eleventh column. Electrons participating in ionization are provided with ionization potential energy (also referred to as ionization energy or bond energy). The ionization potential of the nth electron of an atom or ion is named IP_nAnd is given by the CRC. That is, for example, Li +5.39172eV → Li⁺+e^-And Li⁺+75.6402eV→Li²⁺+e^-. In the second and third columns, respectivelyFirst ionization potential energy IP₁5.39172eV and a second ionization potential IP₂75.6402 eV. The net enthalpy of reaction for the double ionization of Li is 81.0319eV, as given in the tenth column, and m-3 in equation (5), as given in the tenth column.

TABLE 1 Hydrogen catalyst.

Hydrino anions of the present disclosure can pass through the electron source with hydrino (that is, having aboutHydrogen atoms of the bond energy of) in which,and p is an integer greater than 1. By H^-(n-1/p) or H^-(1/p) represents a hydridohydride anion.

Hydridoanions are distinguished from common hydride anions that include a common hydrogen nucleus and two electrons having a bond energy of about 0.8 eV. The latter are referred to hereinafter as "common hydride" or "normal hydride". The hydrido anion comprises a hydrogen nucleus containing protium, deuterium or tritium and two distinguishable electrons at bond energies according to equations (39) and (40).

The bond energy of the hydridoanion can be expressed by the following formula:

where p is an integer greater than 1, s is 1/2, pi is the circumference ratio,is the Planck constant bar, mu_oIs the magnetic permeability of a vacuum, m_eIs the mass of the electron, μ_eIs obtained byGiven reduced electron mass, wherein m_pIs the mass of the proton, a_HIs the radius of a hydrogen atom, a_oIs the Bohr radius, and e is the elementary charge. The radius is given by:

the hydridoanion H as a function of p is shown in Table 2^-(n-1/p) wherein p is an integer.

TABLE 2 hydridoanion H as a function of p^-Representative bond energy of (n ═ 1/p), equation (39).

a equation (40)

b equation (39)

According to the present disclosure, there is provided a hydridoanion (H-) having a bond energy according to equations (39) and (40) which is greater than that of the ordinary hydride (about 0.75eV) for p ═ 2 up to 23, and smaller for p ═ 24 (H-). For p2 to p 24 of equations (39) and (40), the hydride bond energies are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69eV, respectively. Also provided herein are exemplary components comprising the novel hydride ions.

Exemplary compounds that include one or more hydridohydride anions and one or more other elements are also provided. This compound is referred to as a "hydridotion compound".

Common hydrogen species are characterized by the following bond energies: (a) hydride, 0.754eV ("common hydride"); (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecules, 15.3eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecules"); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"); and (e)22.6eV ("common trihydrogen molecular ion"). Herein, "normal" and "normal" are synonyms with reference to the form of hydrogen.

According to other embodiments of the present disclosure, there is provided a compound comprising at least one bond energy enhancing hydrogen species such as (a) a hydrogen atom having about(such as at aboutIn the range of 0.9 to 1.1 times) wherein p is an integer from 2 to 137; (b) hydride (H)^-) Having an approximateA bond energy (such as in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times the bond energy), where p is an integer from 2 to 24; (c)(d) three fractional hydrogen molecular ionWhich has a diameter of(such as inIn the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times) wherein p is an integer from 2 to 137; (e) a two-part hydrogen of about(such as inIn the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times) wherein p is an integer from 2 to 137; (f) a binary molecular hydrogen ion having a molecular weight of about(such as inIn the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times) where p is an integer, preferably, an integer from 2 to 137.

According to other embodiments of the present disclosure, there is provided a compound comprising at least one hydrogen species with increased bond energy, such as (a) a bi-molecular hydrogen ion having about

(e.g. in total energy E_TIn the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times), where p is an integer,is the Planck constant bar, m_eIs the mass of an electron, c is the speed of light in vacuum, μ is the reduced atomic mass, and (b) a di-hydrido molecule having about

(such as at E)_TIn the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times) where p is an integer, a_oIs the bohr radius.

According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, wherein the compound comprises a negatively charged bond energy increasing hydrogen species, the compound further comprises one or more cations (such as photon, normal, etc.)Or in general)。

Provided herein are methods of making compounds comprising at least one hydridohydride anion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydridoth anionic compounds". The method comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a compound having a valence of aboutWherein m is an integer greater than 1, preferably less than 400, to produce a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of aboutWherein p is an integer, preferably fromAn integer of 2 to 137. The other product of catalysis is energy. The hydrogen atoms of increased bond energy may react with the electron source to produce hydride ions of increased bond energy. The increased bond energy hydride can be reacted with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased bond energy hydride.

The novel hydrogen species may include:

(a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "bond energy enhanced hydrogen species") having the following bond energy

(i) Greater than the bond energy of the corresponding common hydrogen species, or

(ii) Greater than the bond energy of any hydrogen species that makes the corresponding common hydrogen species unstable or unobservable (because the bond energy of the common hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), or negative); and

(b) at least one other element. The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen compounds with increased bond energy".

"other elements" in this context means elements other than hydrogen species of increased bond energy. Thus, the other element may be a common hydrogen species, or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other elements and hydrogen species whose bond energy is increased are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other elements and hydrogen species whose bond energy is increased are charged so that the other elements provide a balancing charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordination bonds; the latter group is characterized by ionic bonds.

In addition, novel compounds and molecular ions are provided that include:

(a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "bond energy enhanced hydrogen species") having the following total energy

(i) Greater than the total energy corresponding to common hydrogen species, or

(ii) Greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species that makes the corresponding common hydrogen species unstable or unobservable (because the total energy of the common hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions, or negative); and

(b) at least one other element.

The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energies used to remove all electrons from the hydrogen species. Hydrogen species according to the present disclosure have a total energy greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. The total energy augmented hydrogen species according to the present disclosure may also be referred to as "bond energy augmented hydrogen species," even though some embodiments of the total energy augmented hydrogen species may have a first electron bond energy that is less than the first electron bond energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. For example, for p 24, the hydride of equations (39) and (40) has a first bonding energy that is less than that of the common hydride, while for p 24, the total energy of the hydride of equations (39) and (40) is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding common hydride.

Additionally, provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising:

(a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "bond energy enhanced hydrogen species") having the following bond energies

(ii) A bond energy greater than any hydrogen species that renders the corresponding common hydrogen species unstable or unobservable (because the bond energy of the common hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy in ambient conditions or negative); and

(b) optionally, one other element. The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen compounds with increased bond energy".

The increased bond energy hydrogen species may be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more of an electron, a hydrino atom, a compound containing at least one of the increased bond energy hydrogen species and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion in addition to the increased bond energy hydrogen species.

In addition, novel compounds and molecular ions are provided that include:

(a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "bond energy enhanced hydrogen species") having the following total energy

(i) Greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or

In an embodiment, there is provided a compound comprising at least one bond energy increasing hydrogen species selected from the group consisting of: (a) hydride, which has a bond energy according to equations (39) and (40) which is greater than that of the common hydride (about 0.8eV) for p ═ 2 up to 23, and smaller ("increased bond energy hydride" or "hydrinos") for p ═ 24; (b) a hydrogen atom having a bond energy ("bond energy increased hydrogen atom" or "fractional hydrogen") greater than that of a general hydrogen atom (about 13.6 eV); (c) a hydrogen molecule having a first bond energy ("bond energy enhanced hydrogen molecule" or "fractional hydrogen") greater than about 15.3 eV; (d) molecular hydrogen ions having a bond energy ("bond energy enhanced molecular hydrogen ions" or "binary molecular hydrogen ions") greater than about 16.3 eV. In the present disclosure, the hydrogen species and compounds with increased bond energy are also referred to as lower energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos include hydrogen species with increased bond energy or (equivalently) lower energy hydrogen species.

Additional MH type catalysts and reactions

Generally, MH-type hydrogen catalysts for the production of hydrinos are given in Table 3A,the MH type hydrogen catalyst is provided by breaking M — H bonds plus ionizing t electrons in the atom M each to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons is approximately M · 27.2eV, where M is an integer. In the first column each MH catalyst is given and in the second column the corresponding M-H bond energy is given. The atom M of a given MH species in the first column is ionized to provide a net enthalpy of reaction of m.27.2 eV, plus the bond energy in the second column. The enthalpy of the catalyst is given in the eighth column, wherein m is given in the ninth column. Electrons participating in ionization are given by ionization potential energy (also referred to as ionization energy or bond energy). For example, the bond energy 1.9245eV for NaH is given in the second column. The ionization potential of the nth electron of an atom or ion is named IP_nAnd is given by the CRC. That is, for example, Na +5.13908eV → Na⁺+e^-And Na⁺+47.2864eV→Na²⁺+e^-. Giving a first ionization potential IP in the second and third columns, respectively₁5.13908eV and a second ionization potential IP₂47.2864 eV. The net enthalpy of the reaction of the cleavage of NaH bonds and the double ionization of Na is 54.35eV, as given in the eighth column, and m-2 in equation (35), as given in the ninth column. Bond energy of BaH is 1.98991eV and IP₁、IP₂、IP₃5.2117eV, 10.00390eV, and 37.3eV, respectively. The net enthalpy of reaction of the scission of the BaH bond and triple ionization of Ba is 54.35eV as given in the eighth column, and m ═ 2 in equation (35) as given in the ninth column. Bond energy of SrH is 1.70eV and IP₁、IP₂、IP₃、IP₄And IP₅5.69484eV, 11.03013eV, 42.89eV, 57eV, and 71.6eV, respectively. Cleavage of SrH bond and Sr to Sr⁵⁺The net enthalpy of reaction of ionization of (a) is 190eV, as given in column eight, and m in equation (35) is 7, as given in column ninth.

Table 3A. MH-type hydrogen catalysts are capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately m.27.2 eV. The unit of energy is eV.

In other embodiments, MH for hydrino generation is given in table 3B^-Type hydrogen catalyst, MH^-The type hydrogen catalyst is provided by transferring electrons to an acceptor a, breaking M-H bonds plus ionizing t electrons in an atom M all to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the electron transfer energy including the difference in Electron Affinity (EA) of MH and a, the M-H bond energy, and the ionization energy of t electrons in M, where M is an integer, is approximately M · 27.2 eV. Each MH^-The electron affinity of the catalyst, acceptor A, MH, the electron affinity of A, and the M-H bond energy are given in the first, second, third, and fourth columns, respectively. The ionization potential (also called ionization energy or bond energy) in the subsequent column is used to give the electron of the corresponding atom M in the MH participating in the ionization and in the last column the enthalpy of the catalyst and the corresponding integer M are given. For example, the electron affinities of OH and H are 1.82765eV and 0.7542eV, respectively, such that the electron transfer energy is 1.07345eV, as given in the fifth column. The bond energy of OH is 4.4556eV, as given in the sixth column. Ionization potential of n-th electron of atom or ion is represented by IP_nTo name. This is, for example, O +13.61806eV → O⁺+e^-And O is⁺+35.11730eV→O²⁺+e^-. Giving a first ionization potential IP in the seventh and eighth columns, respectively₁13.61806eV and a second ionization potential IP₂35.11730 eV. The net enthalpy of electron transfer reaction, breaking of OH bonds and double ionization of O is 54.27eV, as given in the tenth column, and m-2 in equation (35), as given in the twelfth column. In other embodiments, a catalyst for forming hydrino H is provided by ionization of a negative ion such that the sum of its EA plus the ionization energy of one or more electrons is approximately m · 27.2eV, where m is an integer. Alternatively, a first electron of the negative ion may be transferred to the acceptor, followed by at least one more electron being ionized, such that the sum of the electron transfer energy plus the ionization energy of the one or more electrons is approximately m · 27.2eV, where m is an integer. The electron acceptor may be H.

Table 3B. MH capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately m.27.2 eV^-And (3) a hydrogen catalyst. The unit of energy is eV.

In other embodiments, MH for hydrinos generation is provided by electron transfer of a donor A that can be negatively charged, breaking of the M-H bond, ionization of all t electrons in atom M to a continuum level such that the sum of the electron transfer energy, including the difference in ionization energy of MH and A, the M-H bond energy, and the ionization energy of t electrons in M is approximately m.27.2 eV⁺A hydrogen catalyst of the type wherein m is an integer.

In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises any species such as an atom, a positively or negatively charged ion, a positively or negatively charged molecular ion, a molecule, an excited atom, a compound, or any combination thereof in a ground or excited state capable of accepting energy of m · 27.2eV, m ═ 1,2,3, 4. It is believed that the rate of catalysis increases as the net enthalpy of reaction more closely matches m.27.2 eV. It has been found that catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within + -10% (preferably + -5%) of m.27.2 eV are suitable for most applications. In the case where the hydrino atom is catalyzed to a lower energy state, the net enthalpy of reaction of m.27.2 eV (equation (5)) is corrected relationally by the same factor as the potential energy of the hydrino atom. In an embodiment, the catalyst resonantly non-radiatively receives energy from atomic hydrogen. In embodiments, the energy received reduces the potential energy magnitude of the catalyst by about the amount transferred from the atomic hydrogen. High energy ions or electrons may result due to conservation of kinetic energy of the initially bound electrons. At least one atom H acts as a catalyst for at least one other atom, where the 27.2eV potential of the acceptor is offset by the 27.2eV transferred or from the donor H atom being catalyzed. The kinetic energy of the acceptor catalyst H can be preserved as fast protons or electrons. In addition, the intermediate state (equation (7)) formed in catalyzed H decays with continuous spectral energy emission in the form of radiation or induced kinetic energy in the third body. These energy releases can result in current flow into the CIHT cell of the present disclosure.

In an embodiment, at least one of the molecule or the positively or negatively charged molecular ion acts as a catalyst that accepts m27.2ev from the atomic H as the potential energy magnitude of the molecule or the positively or negatively charged molecular ion decreases by about m27.2ev. For example, H as given in Mills GUTCP₂The potential energy of O is

Molecules whose energy accepts m.27.2 eV from the atom H as their potential energy magnitude decreases can be used as catalysts. For example, with respect to H₂The potential energy of O (m-3) is

And the overall reaction is

Wherein the content of the first and second substances,having a radius of hydrogen atoms and a central field equal to 4 times the central field of protons,is the corresponding steady state of 1/4 with radius H. Because of the electronsUndergoes radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogen atom to a radius of 1/4 which is this distance, so energy is released as characteristic light emission or third body kinetic energy. The average number of H bonds of each water molecule in boiling water was 3.6 based on a 10% change in energy from ice at 0 ℃ to heat of vaporization of water at 100 ℃. Thus, in embodiments, H₂O must be chemically formed into a spacer molecule with suitable activation energy to act as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. In an embodiment, H₂The O catalyst being nascent H₂O。

In an embodiment, nH, O, nO, O₂OH and H₂At least one of O (n ═ integer) may be used as a catalyst. The product of H and OH as the catalyst can be H (1/5) where the catalyst enthalpy is about 108.8 eV. H and H as catalysts₂The reaction product of O may be H (1/4). The hydrino product may also react to a lower state. The product of H (1/4) and H as catalyst can be H (1/5) where the catalyst enthalpy is about 27.2 eV. The product of H (1/4) and OH as the catalyst can be H (1/6) where the catalyst enthalpy is about 54.4 eV. The product of H (1/5) and H as catalyst can be H (1/6) where the catalyst enthalpy is about 27.2 eV.

In addition, OH can be used as a catalyst because the potential energy of OH is

The energy difference between H-state p-1 and p-2 is 40.8 eV. Thus, OH can accept approximately 40.8eV from H and act as a catalyst for the formation of H (1/2).

Like H₂Amide function NH as given in O, Mills GUTCP₂The potential of (A) is-78.77719 eV. According to CRC, with corresponding Δ H_fCalculated for NH₂React to form KNH₂Δ H of (a) is (-128.9-184.9) kJ/mole-313.8 kJ/mole (3.25 eV). According to CRC, with corresponding Δ H_fCalculated for NH₂Reaction formTo NaNH₂Δ H of (a) is (-128.9-184.9) kJ/mole-308.7 kJ/mole (3.20 eV). According to CRC, with corresponding Δ H_fCalculated for NH₂Reaction to form LiNH₂Δ H of (a) is (-179.5-184.9) kJ/mole-364.4 kJ/mole (3.78 eV). Thus, the basic amide MNH which can be used as H catalyst to form hydrinos₂The net enthalpies accepted by (M ═ K, Na, Li) are about 82.03eV, 81.98eV, and 82.56eV (M ═ 3 in equation (5)) corresponding respectively to the sum of the potential energy of the amide group and the energy of amide formation with the amide group. Hydrino products such as molecular hydrinos can cause high magnetic field matrix shifts observed by means such as MAS NMR.

Like H₂O, H given in Mills GUTCP₂The potential of the S function is-72.81 eV. Counteracting this potential energy also eliminates the energy associated with hybridization of the 3p shell. This hybridization energy of 7.49eV is given by the ratio of the hydride orbital radius and the initial atomic orbital radius multiplied by the total energy of the shell. In addition, the energy change of the S3p shell due to the formation of 2S-H bonds of 1.10eV is included in the catalyst energy. Thus, H₂The net enthalpy of the S catalyst is 81.40eV (m ═ 3 in equation (5)). H₂The S catalyst can be formed from MHS (M ═ base) by the following reaction:

2MHS→M₂S+H₂S(49)

this reversible reaction can form H in the active catalytic state in the transition state₂S to produce H capable of catalyzing hydrogen with H component number₂And S. The reaction mixture may include the formation of H₂S and a source of atomic H. Hydrino products such as molecular hydrinos can cause high magnetic field matrix shifts observed by means such as MAS NMR.

In addition, atomic oxygen is a special atom with two unpaired electrons at the same radius equal to the bohr radius of atomic hydrogen. When atom H is used as a catalyst, an energy of 27.2eV is accepted so that the kinetic energy of each ionized H of the catalyst used as another atom is 13.6 eV. Similarly, each of the two electrons of O may be due to a kinetic energy of 13.6eV transferred to the O ionIs ionized such that the net enthalpy of ionization of the O-H bond that breaks the OH and the next two external unpaired electrons is 80.4eV, as given in table 3. At OH^-During ionization to OH, further reaction to form H (1/4) and O may occur²⁺+2e^-Wherein the released 204eV energy contributes to the power of the CIHT cell. The reaction is given as follows:

and, the overall reaction is:

where m is 3 in equation (5). Kinetic energy can also be preserved in hot electrons. The observation of the H population inversion in the water vapor plasma is a demonstration of this mechanism. Hydrino products such as molecular hydrinos can cause high magnetic field matrix shifts observed by means such as MAS NMR. Other methods of identifying molecular hydrino products (such as FTIR, Raman, and XPS) are given in this disclosure.

In embodiments in which oxygen or a compound comprising oxygen participates in the oxidation or reduction reaction, O₂May be used as a catalyst or source of catalyst. The bond energy of the oxygen molecule is 5.165eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of the oxygen atom are 13.61806eV, 35.11730eV, and 54.9355eV, respectively. Reaction O₂→O+O²⁺，O₂→O+O³⁺And 2O → 2O⁺Respectively provide is E_hAbout 2,4, and 1 times the net enthalpy, and includes the reaction of the catalyst for forming hydrinos by accepting this energy from H to cause the formation of hydrinos.

In embodiments, as about 1950cm, is observed^-1Molecular hydrino products of the reverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at (a). The peaks are enhanced by using a conductive material comprising a roughness characteristic or particle size comparable to the Raman laser wavelength supporting Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) to exhibit IRE peaks.

VI chemical reactor

The present disclosure also relates to other reactors for producing the bond energy enhanced hydrogen species and compounds of the present disclosure, such as, molecular hydrogen dichotomous and hydridic compounds. Other products of catalysis are power and (optionally) plasma and light, depending on the cell type. Such reactors are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen reactors" or "hydrogen cells". The hydrogen reaction vessel includes a cell for forming hydrinos. The cell used to form the hydrinos may take the form of a chemical reactor or a gas fuel cell, such as a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or a microwave power cell, and an electrochemical cell. Exemplary embodiments of the cells for forming hydrinos may take the form of liquid fuel cells, solid fuel cells, heterogeneous fuel cells, CIHT cells, and SF-CIHT cells. Each of these batteries includes: (i) a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst selected from a solid catalyst for forming hydrinos, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or mixtures thereof; (iii) a vessel for reacting hydrogen and a catalyst to form hydrinos. As used herein and as contemplated by the present disclosure, the term "hydrogen" includes not only protium (l), unless otherwise indicated¹H) And also includes deuterium (²H) And tritium (f)³H) In that respect Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may include SF-CIHT, or thermal battery embodiments of the present disclosure. Additional exemplary embodiments are given in this "chemical reactor" section. In the present disclosure, H formed during the reaction of the mixture is given₂O is exemplified as the reaction mixture of the catalyst. Other catalysts, such as those given in tables 1 and 3, may be used to form the hydrogen species and compounds with increased bond energy. An exemplary M-H type catalyst of Table 3A is NaH. These illustrative examples may be used to adjust the reaction and parameters of the adjustment (such as reactants, reactant wt%, H)₂Pressure and reaction temperature). Suitable reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are disclosed herein. Hydrinos and molecular hydrinos appear to be products of the disclosed reactor (as reported in Mills prior publications) due to predicted continuum radiation bands of integer multiples of 13.6eV, doppler broadening of the additional H-line, reversal of the H-line, plasma formation without breakdown electric field, unexplained unusually high H kinetic energy measured by the anomalous plasma after the glow duration. Data (such as data on CIHT cells and solid fuels) have been independently validated off-site by other researchers. The formation of hydrinos by the batteries of the present disclosure is also confirmed by the electrical energy output for a continuous long duration, which is many times the electrical input without an alternate source, in most cases exceeding the input by a factor greater than 10. By MAS H NMR (exhibiting a predicted high electric field displacement matrix peak of about-4.4 ppm), ToF-SIMS and ESI-ToFMS (exhibiting H associated with the inspiratory matrix as an M/e-M + n2 peak)₂(1/4) wherein M is the mass of the parent ion and n is an integer), electron beam excitation emission spectrum and photoluminescence emission spectrum (shown to have H)₂16 or the quantum number p of 4 square multiples of H₂Predicted rotation and vibration spectra of (1/4)), Raman and FTIR spectra (shown as H₂16 or a quantum number p of 4 square multiples of 1950cm^-1H of (A) to (B)₂Rotational energy of (1/4)), XPS (H exhibiting 500eV₂(1/4) predicting total bond energy), and ToF-SIMS peak (arrival time before the m/e 1 peak corresponding to H with kinetic energy of about 204eV matching the energy release from H to H (1/4) predicted at energy transfer to third body H), predicted molecular fraction hydrogen H₂(1/4) products identified as CIHT cells and solid fuels, in Mills prior publications and in "Catalyst Induced Hydrogen Transfer (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell" of R.Mills X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, International Journal of Energy Research, (2013) and in R.M. Mills X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entiretyReported in "High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transfer (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell" (2014) by ils, J.Lotoski, J.Kong, G Chu, J.He, J.Trevey.

The formation of hydrinos by the cells of the present disclosure, such as cells comprising solid fuels for generating thermodynamic power, is confirmed by observing the heat of formation of the solid fuel by hydrinos that exceed the maximum theoretical energy by a factor of 60 using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC). MAS H NMR showed a predicted H of about-4.4 ppm₂(1/4) high magnetic field matrix displacement. Starting at 1950cm^-1Raman peak matching of₂(1/4) free space rotational energy (0.2414 eV). These results are reported in the Mills prior publications, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety, and in the Solid Fuels at Form HOH Catalyst (2014) of r.mills, j.lotoski, w.good, j.he.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel reacts to form H₂O and H as products or intermediate reaction products. H₂O can be used as a catalyst for the formation of hydrinos. The reactants include at least one oxidizing agent and one reducing agent, and the reaction includes at least one oxidation-reduction reaction. The reactants may include metals such as alkali metals. The reaction mixture may also include a source of hydrogen and H₂A source of O, and optionally may include a support such as carbon, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile. The carrier may comprise a metal powder. In an embodiment, the hydrogen carrier comprises Mo or Mo alloys, such as Mo or Mo alloys of the present disclosure, such as MoPt, MoNi, MoCu, and MoCo. In embodiments, the reduction is accomplished by such means as selecting other components of the reaction mixture that do not oxidize the support, selecting temperatures and conditions under which oxidation does not occur, and maintaining a reducing atmosphere (such as H), as known to those skilled in the art₂Atmosphere) to avoid oxidation of the support. The source of H can be selected from the group consisting of alkali, alkaline earth metal, transition, internal transition, rare earth hydrides, and hydrides of the present disclosure. The source of hydrogen may be hydrogen gas, which may also include dissociation ions, such as those of the present disclosure, such as carbon or aluminaNoble metals on supports and other supports of the present disclosure. The source of water may include dehydrated compounds (such as hydroxides or hydroxide complexes, such as Al, Zn, Sn, Cr, Sb and Pb). The source of water may include a source of hydrogen and a source of oxygen. The oxygen source may comprise an oxygen-containing compound. An exemplary compound or molecule is O₂Alkali or alkaline earth oxides, peroxides, or superoxides, TeO₂、SeO₂、PO₂、P₂O₅、SO₂、SO₃、M₂SO₄、MHSO₄、CO₂、M₂S₂O₈、MMnO₄、M₂Mn₂O₄、M_xH_yPO₄(x, y are integers), POBr₂、MClO₄、MNO₃、NO、N₂O、NO₂、N₂O₃、Cl₂O₇And O₂(M ═ base; alkaline earth or other cations may be substituted for M). Other exemplary reactants include those selected from Li, LiH, LiNO₃、LiNO、LiNO₂、Li₃N、Li₂NH、LiNH₂、LiX、NH3、LiBH₄、LiAlH₄、Li₃AlH₆、LiOH、Li₂S、LiHS、LiFeSi、Li₂CO₃、LiHCO₃、Li₂SO₄、LiHSO₄、Li₃PO₄、Li₂HPO₄、LiH₂PO₄、Li₂MoO₄、LiNbO₃、Li₂B₄O₇(lithium tetraborate), LiBO₂、Li₂WO₄、LiAlCl₄、LiGaCl₄、Li₂CrO₄、Li₂Cr₂O₇、Li₂TiO₃、LiZrO₃、LiAlO₂、LiCoO₂、LiGaO₂、Li₂GeO₃、LiMn₂O₄、Li₄SiO₄、Li₂SiO₃、LiTaO₃、LiCuCl₄、LiPdCl₄、LiVO₃、LiIO₃、LiBrO₃、LiXO₃(X＝F、Br、Cl、I)、LiFeO₂、LiIO₄、LiBrO₄、LiIO₄、LiXO₄(X＝F、Br、Cl、I)、LiScO_n、LiTiO_n、LiVO_n、LiCrO_n、LiCr₂O_n、LiMn₂O_n、LiFeO_n、LiCoO_n、LiNiO_n、LiNi₂O_n、LiCuO_nAnd LiZnO_n(wherein n ═ 1,2,3, or 4), oxygen ion of strong acid, oxidizing agent, molecular oxidizing agent (such as V)₂O₃、I₂O₅、MnO₂、Re₂O₇、CrO₃、RuO₂、AgO、PdO、PdO₂、PtO、PtO₂And NH₄X, wherein X is nitrate or other suitable anion given in CRC), and a reducing agent. Another alkali metal or other cation may be substituted for Li. The additional oxygen source may be selected from MCoO₂、MGaO₂、M₂GeO₃、MMn₂O₄、M₄SiO₄、M₂SiO₃、MTaO₃、MVO₃、MIO₃、MFeO₂、MIO₄、MClO₄、MScO_n、MTiO_n、MVO_n、MCrO_n、MCr₂O_n、MMn₂O_n、MFeO_n、MCoO_n、MNiO_n、MNi₂O_n、MCuO_nAnd MZnO_n(wherein M is a base and n ═ 1,2,3, or 4), an oxyanion of a strong acid, an oxidizing agent, a molecular oxidizing agent (such as V)₂O₃、I₂O₅、MnO₂、Re₂O₇、CrO₃、RuO₂、AgO、PdO、PdO₂、PtO、PtO₂、I₂O₄、I₂O₅、I₂O₉、SO₂、SO₃、CO₂、N₂O、NO、NO₂、N₂O₃、N₂O₄、N₂O₅、Cl₂O、ClO₂、Cl₂O₃、Cl₂O₆、Cl₂O₇、PO₂、P₂O₃And P₂O₅) Group of constituents. The reactants can be in any desired ratio to form hydrinos. An exemplary reaction mixture is 0.33g LiH, 1.7g LiNO₃1g of MgH₂And 4g of activated C powder. Another exemplary reaction mixture is a gunpowder reaction mixture, such as, KNO₃(75% by weight), charcoal of soft mass (which may include approximate formula C)₇H₄O) (15 wt%), and S (10 wt%); KNO₃(70.5 wt%), charcoal of soft material (29.5 wt%), or these ratios are in the range of about + -1-30 wt%. The source of hydrogen may be a source comprising a general formula C₇H₄O charcoal.

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture includes nitrogen, carbon dioxide and H₂A reactant of O, wherein H₂O acts as a hydrino catalyst for H additionally formed in the reaction. In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogen and H₂Sources of O, which may include nitrates, sulfates, perchlorates, peroxides such as hydrogen peroxide, peroxy compounds such as triacetone (TATP) or dipropone diperoxide (DADP), usable as sources of H, in particular, with the addition of O₂Or another source of oxygen such as a nitro-containing compound (such as nitrocellulose (APNC)), oxygen, or other compounds containing oxygen or oxygen-ion compounds. The reaction mixture may include a source of a compound or a compound, or a source of a functional group or a functional group including at least two of a hydrogen, a carbon, a hydroxyl, and an oxygen-nitrogen bond. The reactants may include nitrates, nitrites, aryloxys, and ammonium nitrates. The nitrate may include a metal such as an alkali nitrate, may include ammonium nitrate or other nitrates known to those skilled In the art (such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, or rare earth metal, or Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb nitrates). The nitro group may include a functional group of an organic compound (such as nitromethane, nitroglycerin, trinitrotoluene, or similar compounds known to those skilled in the art). Exemplary reactionThe compound being NH₄NO₃And a carbon source that may contain oxygen (such as a long chain hydrocarbon (C)_nH_2n+2) Such as fuel oil, diesel fuel, kerosene, such as molasses or sugar or nitroglycerine (such as nitromethane)) or a carbon source such as coal dust. The H source may also include NH₄Hydrocarbons such as fuel oil, or sugars, wherein the H-C bond provides a controlled release of H. H release may be a radical reaction. C can react with O, releasing H and forming CO, CO₂And formate salts of carbon-oxygen compounds. In embodiments, a single compound may include the formation of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and H₂A functional group of O. The ammonium nitrate, which also includes a hydrocarbon functional group, is cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, commonly known as hexogen (Cyclonite) or named by the RDX code. Can be used as a source of H and H₂Other exemplary compounds of at least one of the sources of O catalyst (such as a source of at least one of a source of O and a source of H) are at least one selected from the group of: ammonium Nitrate (AN), black powder (75% KNO)₃+ 15% charcoal + 10% S), ammonium nitrate/fuel oil (ANFO) (94.3% AN + 5.7% fuel oil), erythritol tetranitrate, trinitrotoluene (TNT), amatto explosive (80% TNT + 20% AN), terbutaline explosive blend (70% trinitrotoluene nitramine + 30% TNT), terbutaline (2,4, 6-trinitrophenyl methyl nitramine (C)₇H₅N₅O₈) C-4 (91% RDX), C-3 (based on RDX), component B (63% RDX + 36% TNT), nitroglycerin, RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), Semtex (94.3% PETN + 5.7% RDX), PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate), HMX or octogen (cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine), HNIW (CL-20) (hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane), DDF, (4,4 '-dinitro-3, 3' -azofuran oxide), heptanitrocubane, octanitrocubane, 2,4, 6-tris (trinitromethyl) -1,3, 5-triazole, TATNB (1,3, 5-trinitrobenzene, 3, 5-triazo-2, 4, 6-trinitrobenzene), trinitroamino acid, TNP (2,4, 6-trinitrophenol or picric acid), D type explosive (ammonium picrate), methyl picric acid, picric acid chloride (2-chloro-1, 3, 5-trinitrobenzene), trinitrocresol, and astringent acid lead (lead-2, 4, 6-trinitroresorcinol, C)₆HN₃O₈Pb), TATB (triaminotrinitrobenzene), methyl nitrate, nitroethylene glycol,Mannitol hexanitrate, ethylene dinitramine, nitroguanidine, tetranitroglycoluril, nitrocellulose, urea nitrate, hexamethylene-triperoxydiamine (HMTD). The ratio of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen may be any desired ratio. In AN embodiment of a reaction mixture of Ammonium Nitrate (AN) and Fuel Oil (FO), referred to as ammonium nitrate/fuel oil (ANFO), a suitable stoichiometry to give a substantially equilibrium reaction is about 94.3 wt.% of AN and 5.7 wt.% of FO, although there may be AN excess of FO. AN exemplary equilibrium reaction of AN and nitromethane is

3NH₄NO₃+2CH₃NO₂to 4N₂+2CO₂+9H₂O (80)

Wherein some of the H are also converted into e.g. H₂(1/p) and H^-(1/p) (such as p ═ 4). In embodiments, the molar ratio of hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen to the molar ratio of the oxygen to the nitrogen such as having formula C₃H₆N₆O₆Is an approximation in RDX of (a).

In embodiments, H is used₂Additional sources of atomic hydrogen of the gas or hydrides such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, rare earth hydrides and dissociation agents such as Ni, Nb or noble metals on supports such as carbon, carbides, borides, or nitrides or silica or alumina. The reaction mixture may be subjected to the formation of H₂Compression or shock waves are generated during the reaction of the O catalyst and atomic H to increase the kinetic energy of the formation of hydrinos. The reaction mixture may be included in the process for forming H and H₂At least one reactant that adds heat during the reaction of the O catalyst. The reaction mixture may include a source of oxygen (such as air) that may be dispersed between small particles or pellets of the solid fuel. For example, AN pellets may include approximately 20% air. The reaction mixture may also include a photosensitizer (such as gas-filled glass beads). In an exemplary embodiment, a powdered metal, such as Al, is added to increase the heat and kinetics of the reaction. For example, Al metal powder may be added to ANFO. Other reaction mixtures include sources that also have H and sources of catalyst (such as H₂O) a pyrotechnic material. In embodiments, the formation of hydrinos has a high activation energy, which may be provided by, for example, an energy reaction (such as the reaction of energy or a pyrotechnic material), wherein the formation of hydrinos facilitates self-heating of the reaction mixture. Alternatively, the activation energy may be provided by an electrochemical reaction (such as that of a CIHT cell having a high equivalent temperature corresponding to 11,600K/eV).

Another exemplary reaction mixture is H, which can be in the pressure range of about 0.01atm to about 100atm₂Gases, e.g. alkali nitrates (e.g. KNO)₃) Nitrate salts of (1), such as Pt/C, Pd/C, Pt/Al₂O₃Or Pd/Al₂O₃The hydrogen dissociation agent of (1). The mixture may also include carbon such as graphite or GTA grade grafoil (union carbide). The reaction ratio may be any desired (such as about 1 to 10% Pt or Pd on about 0.1 to 10% by weight carbon mixed with about 50% by weight nitrate and balance carbon mixture); in exemplary embodiments, however, these ratios may vary by multiples of about 5 to 10. In the case of using carbon as a support, a temperature is maintained below which causes C to react to form a compound such as a carbonate (such as an alkali carbonate). In embodiments, the temperature is maintained in a range such as about 50 ℃ to 300 ℃ or about 100 ℃ to 250 ℃ such that NH₃Is formed on N₂And (4) upward.

The reactant and regeneration reactions and systems may include those of the present disclosure or in the following prior U.S. patent applications by this inventor: for example, PCT/US08/61455, "hydrogenetic catalyst Reactor" (PCT filed 24.4.2008), the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference; PCT/US09/052072 "heterogeneous hydrogen Catalyst Reactor" (PCT filed on 7/29/2009); PCT/US10/27828 "heterogeneousus Hydrogen Catalyst Power System" (PCT filed 3/18/2010); PCT/US11/28889 "Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System" (PCT filed 3/17.2011); PCT/US 12/31369' H₂O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System "(3 months 2012)PCT submitted on day 30); PCT/US13/041938 "CIHT Power System" (PCT filed 5/21.2013) and PCT/IB2014/058177 "Power Generation Systems and methods Regarding Same" ("Mills earlier applications").

In embodiments, the reaction may include, for example, N₂O、NO₂Or nitrogen oxides of NO rather than nitrates. Alternatively, a gas is also added to the reaction mixture. NO, NO can be generated by known industrial methods, such as Haber treatment followed by Ostwald treatment₂And N₂O and alkali nitrates. In one embodiment, an exemplary sequence of steps is:

specifically, the Haber treatment can be used with N at elevated temperature and pressure using a catalyst containing an oxide (such as α iron)₂And H₂Formation of NH₃. Ostwald treatment can be used to oxidize ammonia to NO, NO under the action of a catalyst such as a hot platinum or platinum-rhodium catalyst₂And N₂And O. In an embodiment, the product is at least one of ammonia and a base compound. Can be prepared by reacting NH₃Oxidation to form N₂O。N₂O can dissolve in water to form nitric acid, nitric acid and a solvent such as M₂O、MOH、M₂CO₃Or MHCO₃To form M nitrate, wherein M is a base.

In embodiments, such as MNO₃Oxygen source of (M ═ base) to form H₂O catalyst, (ii) with a catalyst such as H₂(ii) and (iii) the reaction to form hydrinos occurs over or on a conventional catalyst such as a noble metal (e.g., Pt) that can be heated. The heated catalyst may comprise a hot filament. The filament may comprise a hot Pt filament. Such as MNO₃The source of oxygen of (a) may be at least partially gaseous. By heating, e.g. KNO₃MNO (A)₃To control the gaseous state and the gaseous phase pressure thereofForce. Such as MNO₃May be heated to release gaseous MNO₃In the open boat. Heating may be performed by a heater such as a hot filament. In an exemplary embodiment, the MNO are adapted₃Placed in a quartz boat and Pt filament was wound around the boat to act as a heater. MNO₃May be maintained at a pressure in the range of about 0.1 torr to 1000 torr or about 1 torr to 100 torr. The hydrogen source may be gaseous hydrogen maintained at a pressure in the range of about 1 torr to 100atm, about 10 torr to 10atm, or about 100 torr to 1 atm. The filament is also used to dissociate the hydrogen gas that can be supplied to the cell through the gas line. The cell may also include a vacuum line. Battery reaction induced H₂The O catalyst reacts with atomic H to form hydrinos. The reaction may be maintained in a vessel capable of maintaining at least one of a vacuum, ambient pressure, or a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. Such as NH can be removed from the battery₃And MOH and can be regenerated. In an exemplary embodiment, the MNO₃With a hydrogen source to form H₂O catalyst and NH regenerated in a separate reaction vessel or as a separate step by oxidation₃. In embodiments, water is used to generate hydrogen, such as H, by at least one of electrolysis or thermal means₂A source of hydrogen for gas. Exemplary thermal methods are iron oxide cycles, cerium (IV) oxide-cerium (III) oxide cycles, zinc oxide zinc cycles, sulfur-iodine cycles, copper-chlorine cycles, and mixed sulfur cycles, and others known to those skilled in the art. For the formation of H which further reacts with H to form hydrinos₂An exemplary cell reaction of an O catalyst is

KNO₃+9/2H₂→K+NH₃+3H₂O (82)

KNO₃+5H₂→KH+NH₃+3H₂O (83)

KNO₃+4H₂→KOH+NH₃+2H₂O (84)

KNO₃+C+2H₂→KOH+NH₃+CO₂(85)

2KNO₃+C+3H₂→K₂CO₃+1/2N₂+3H₂O (86)

An exemplary regeneration reaction for forming nitrogen oxides is given by equation (81). Such as K, KH, KOH and K₂CO₃Can react with nitric acid formed by adding nitric oxide to water to form KNO₂Or KNO₃. The methods for forming H are given in tables 4, 5 and 6₂O catalyst and H₂Further suitable exemplary reactions of at least one of (a).

TABLE 4 about H₂O catalyst and H₂A thermoreversible reaction cycle [ L.C.Brown, G.E.Besenbruch, K.R.Schultz, A.C.Marshall, S.K.Showalter, P.S.Pickard and J.F.Funk ] "nucleic Production of Hydroge use thermo Water-partitioning Cycles" (preprints of the article published by International conference on Advanced Nuclear Power plants (ICAPP) of Hollywood, Florida, 2002, 19-13).]

T-thermochemical and E-electrochemical.

TABLE 5 about H₂O catalyst and H₂(iii) cycle of thermoreversible reaction [ C.Perkins and A.W.Weimer, Solar-Thermal Production of Renewable Hydrogen, AIChE Journal,55(2), (2009), page 286-.]

TABLE 6 about H₂O catalyst and H₂(iii) a thermo-reversible reaction cycle [ S.Absanades, P.Charvin, G.Flamant, P.Newou, "Screening of Water-Splitting thermal Cycles reactive for Hydrogen Production by centralized Solar Energy", Energy,31, (2006), page 2805 and 2822.]

For forming H₂The reactants of the O catalyst may include a source of O (such as an O species) and a source of H. The source of O species may comprise O₂Air and a compound or mixture of O-containing compounds. The oxygenate may include an oxidant. The oxygen-containing compound may include at least one of an oxide, a hydroxide, a peroxide, and a superoxide. Suitable exemplary metal oxides are, for example, Li₂O、Na₂O and K₂Alkali oxides of O, alkali rare earth oxides such as MgO, CaO, SrO and BaO, NiO, Ni₂O₃、FeO、Fe₂O₃And transition oxides of CoO, internal transition and rare earth metal oxides, those of other metals and metalloids such As Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se and Te, mixtures of these and other elements containing oxygen. The oxide can include an oxide anion such as the oxide anions of the present disclosure (such as metal oxide anions and cations such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metal cations) and a metal ion such as MM'_2xO_3x+1Or MM'_2xO₄(M ═ alkaline earth metal, M ═ transition metal such as Fe or Ni or Mn, and x ═ integer) and M₂M’_2xO_3x+1Or M₂M’_2xO₄Suitable exemplary metal hydroxides are alo (oh), sco (oh), yo (oh), vo (oh), cro (oh), mno (oh) (α -mno (oh) manganite and γ -mno (oh) manganite, feo (oh), coo (oh), nio (oh), rho (oh), gao (oh), ino (oh), Ni (Ni) (oh), and other metals and metalloids (such As Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te)_1/2Co_1/2O (OH) and Ni_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O (OH). Suitable exemplary hydroxides are hydroxides of those metals such As alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition and rare earth metals and hydroxides and mixtures of other those metals and metalloids such As Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se and Te. A suitable hydroxyl complex ion is Li₂Zn(OH)₄、Na₂Zn(OH)₄、Li₂Sn(OH)₄、Na₂Sn(OH)₄、Li₂Pb(OH)₄、Na₂Pb(OH)₄、LiSb(OH)₄、NaSb(OH)₄、LiAl(OH)₄、NaAl(OH)₄、LiCr(OH)₄、NaCr(OH)₄、Li₂Sn(OH)₆And Na₂Sn(OH)₆. Another exemplary suitable hydroxide is Co (OH)₂、Zn(OH)₂、Ni(OH)₂Other transition metal hydroxides, Cd (OH)₂、Sn(OH)₂And Pb (OH). Is suitably aAn exemplary peroxide is H₂O₂Organic compounds, such as M₂O₂Wherein M is such as Li₂O₂、Na₂O₂、K₂O₂Alkali metals) other ionic peroxides such as alkaline earth peroxides (such as Ca, Sr, or Ba peroxides), other electropositive metals such as those of the lanthanide series, and covalent metal peroxides such as Zn, Cd, and Hg. Suitable exemplary superoxides are metal MO₂(wherein M is, for example, NaO)₂、KO₂、RbO₂And CsO₂Alkali metal of (ii) and alkaline earth metal superoxides. In embodiments, the solid fuel comprises an alkali peroxide and a source of hydrogen (such as a hydride, a hydrocarbon, or such as BH)₃NH₃Hydrogen storage material of). The reaction mixture can include a hydroxide (such as hydroxides of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition and rare earth metals and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb and other elements that form hydroxides) and an oxygen source (such as a compound including at least one oxygen ion such as a carbonate (such as carbonates including alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition and rare earth metals and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb and other carbonates of the present disclosure). Other suitable oxygenates are at least one of aluminates, tungstates, zirconates, titanates, sulfates, phosphates, carbonates, nitrates, chromates, dichromates, and manganates, oxides, hydroxides, peroxides, superoxides, silicates, titanates, tungstates, and other groups of oxyanionic compounds of the present disclosure. An exemplary reaction of hydroxide and carbonate is given by the following formula

Ca(OH)₂+Li₂CO₃→CaO+H₂O+Li₂O+CO₂(87)

In other embodiments, the oxygen source is gaseous or readily forms a gas, such as NO₂、NO、N₂O、CO₂、P₂O₃、P₂O₅And SO₂. By combustion with oxygen or a source thereof, as set forth in the Mills prior application, a catalyst such as C, N, NH can be formed₃H of P or S₂The reduced oxide product of the O catalyst is converted back to oxide. The battery may generate excess heat that may be used for heating applications, or the heat may be converted to electricity by a device such as a Rankine or Brayton system. Alternatively, the cell can be used to synthesize low energy hydrogen species (such as molecular hydrinos and hydrino anions and corresponding compounds).

In an embodiment, a reaction mixture for forming fractional hydrogen for lower energy hydrogen species and compound generation and at least one of the energy generation includes a source of atomic hydrogen and a source of a catalyst including, for example, H₂At least one of H and O of an O catalyst (such as a catalyst of the present disclosure). The reaction mixture may also include a catalyst such as H₂SO₃、H₂SO₄、H₂CO₃、HNO₂、HNO₃、HClO₄、H₃PO₃And H₃PO₄Or a source of an acid such as an anhydride or an anhydrous acid. The latter may include SO₂、SO₃、CO₂、NO₂、N₂O₃、N₂O₅、Cl₂O₇、PO₂、P₂O₃And P₂O₅At least one of the group (b). The reaction mixture may include a base and a base anhydride (such as, M)₂O (M ═ base), M' O (M ═ alkaline earth), ZnO, or other transition metal oxides, CdO, CoO, SnO, AgO, HgO, or Al₂O₃) At least one of (1). Other exemplary anhydrides include those for H₂O (such as Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In). The anhydride may be an alkali or alkaline earth metal oxide and the hydrate may comprise a hydroxide. The reaction mixture may include a hydroxide compound such as FeOOH, NiOOH, or CoOOH. The reaction mixture may include H₂Source of O and H₂At least one of O. H can be reversibly formed by hydration and dehydration reactions in the presence of atomic hydrogen₂And O. By usingIn the formation of H₂An exemplary reaction of O is

Mg(OH)₂→MgO+H₂O (88)

2LiOH→Li₂O+H₂O (89)

H₂CO₃→CO₂+H₂O (90)

2FeOOH→Fe₂O₃+H₂O (91)

In embodiments, a condensed phosphate (such As, for example, [ P, Bi, Se, Te) is formed by dehydrating at least one compound including a phosphate (such As salts of phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and dihydrogen phosphates, such As those of cations, such As cations including metals such As alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metals and other metals and metalloids such As Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te) and mixtures thereof_nO_3n+1]⁽ⁿ⁺²)^-Polyphosphates such as [ (PO)₃)_n]^n-Long chain metaphosphates such as [ (PO)₃)_n]^n-And a cyclic metaphosphate (n.gtoreq.3), and₄O₁₀at least one of the super phosphates) to form H)₂And (3) an O catalyst. An exemplary reaction is

The reactant for the dehydration reaction may comprise R-Ni, and the R-Ni may comprise Al (OH)₃And Al₂O₃At least one of (1). The reactants can also include a metal M (such as metal M of the present disclosure) such as an alkali metal, a metal hydride MH, a metal hydroxide such as an alkali hydroxide (such as a metal hydroxide of the present disclosure)) And a source of hydrogen (such as H)₂And intrinsic hydrogen). An exemplary reaction is:

2Al(OH)₃+→Al₂O₃+3H₂O (94)

Al₂O₃+2NaOH→2NaAlO₂+H₂O (95)

3MH+Al(OH)₃+→M₃Al+3H₂O (96)

MoCu+2MOH+4O₂→M₂MoO₄+CuO+H₂O(M＝Li,Na,K,Rb,Cs)(97)

the reaction product may comprise an alloy. R-Ni can be regenerated by rehydration. For forming H₂The reaction mixture and dehydration reaction of the O catalyst may include and involve a hydroxide compound (such as the hydroxide compound of the present disclosure given in the following exemplary reaction):

3Co(OH)₂→2CoOOH+Co+2H₂O (98)

can be dissociated with H₂The gas forms atomic hydrogen. The hydrogen dissociation agent may be one of the hydrogen dissociation agents of the present disclosure (such as carbon or Al)₂O₃R-Ni or noble or transition metals on a support such as Ni or Pt or Pd). Alternatively, atomic H may be from H permeation through a membrane (such as the membranes of the present disclosure). In an embodiment, the battery includes a permission H₂Selective diffusion through while preventing H₂An O-diffused membrane (such as a ceramic membrane). In an embodiment, H is supplied to the cell by electrolysis of an electrolyte (such as an aqueous solution or molten electrolyte) comprising a hydrogen source₂And an atom H. In embodiments, H is reversibly formed by dehydration of an acid or base to the anhydride form₂And (3) an O catalyst. In embodiments, the propagation for forming catalyst H is by varying the cell PH or at least one of activity, temperature, pressure₂O and isReaction of several hydrogens, wherein the pressure can be varied by varying the temperature. The activity of species such as acids, bases, or glyceric acid can be altered by adding salts as known to those skilled in the art. In embodiments, the reaction mixture may include a gas (such as H) that may be absorbed or otherwise be a gas₂) Carbon of a salt or a material of anhydride gas for a reaction of forming hydrinos. The reactants may be in any desired concentration and ratio. The reaction mixture may be molten or comprise an aqueous slurry.

In another embodiment, H₂The source of the O catalyst is a reaction between an acid and a base (such as a reaction of at least one of a halogen acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, nitrous acid, and a base). Other suitable acid reactants are H₂SO₄HCl, HX (X-halide), H₃PO₄、HClO₄、HNO₃、HNO、HNO₂、H₂S、H₂CO₃、H₂MoO₄、HNbO₃、H₂B₄O₇(M tetraborate), HBO₂、H₂WO₄、H₂CrO₄、H₂Cr₂O₇、H₂TiO₃、HZrO₃、MAlO₂、HMn₂O₄、HIO₃、HIO₄、HClO₄Or an aqueous solution of an organic acid such as formic acid or acetic acid. Suitable exemplary bases are hydroxides, or oxides comprising alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, or rare earth metals, or Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb.

In embodiments, the reactants may include reacting with a base or an anhydride, respectively, to form H, respectively₂O catalyst and a cation of a base and an anion of an anhydride or a cation of a base anhydride and an anion of an acid. Anhydride SiO₂An exemplary reaction with the base NaOH is

4NaOH+SiO₂→Na₄SiO₄+2H₂O (99)

Wherein the dehydration reaction of the corresponding acid is

H₄SiO₄→2H₂O+SiO₂(100)

Other suitable exemplary anhydrides may include elements, metals, alloys, or mixtures such as from the group of Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co, and Mg. The corresponding oxide may comprise MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃、NiO、Ni₂O₃、FeO、Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃、MnO、Mn₃O₄、Mn₂O₃、MnO₂、Mn₂O₇、HfO₂、Co₂O₃、CoO、Co₃O₄、Co₂O₃And MgO. In exemplary embodiments, the base includes an oxide that can form a corresponding base (such as, for example, Li)₂O and H₂M of O₂O) (such as alkali hydroxide of MOH (M ═ base) such as LiOH). The alkali oxide can react with the anhydride oxide to form the product oxide. In the release of H₂In an exemplary reaction of LiOH of O with anhydride oxide, the product oxide compound may include Li₂MoO₃Or Li₂MoO₄、Li₂TiO₃、Li₂ZrO₃、Li₂SiO₃、LiAlO₂、LiNiO₂、LiFeO₂、LiTaO₃、LiVO₃、Li₂B₄O₇、Li₂NbO₃、Li₂SeO₃、Li₃PO₄、Li₂SeO₄、Li₂TeO₃、Li₂TeO₄、Li₂WO₄、Li₂CrO₄、Li₂Cr₂O₇、Li₂MnO₄、Li₂HfO₃、LiCoO₂And MgO. Other suitable exemplary oxides are As₂O₃、As₂O₅、Sb₂O₃、Sb₂O₄、Sb₂O₅、Bi₂O₃、SO₂、SO₃、CO₂、NO₂、N₂O₃、N₂O₅、Cl₂O₇、PO₂、P₂O₃And P₂O₅At least one of the group of (1). Another example is given by equation (91). Suitable metal oxides are

2LiOH + NiO to Li₂NiO₂+H₂O (101)

3LiOH + NiO to LiNiO₂+H₂O+Li₂O+1/2H₂(102)

4LiOH+Ni₂O₃To 2Li₂NiO₂+2H₂O+1/2O₂(103)

2LiOH+Ni₂O₃To 2LiNiO₂+H₂O (104)

Other transition metals such As Fe, Cr and TI, internal transition, and rare earth metals and other metals and metalloids such As Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se and Te may be substituted for Ni, and other alkali metals such As Li, Na, Rb and Cs may be substituted for K. In embodiments, the oxide may include Mo, wherein the oxide is used to form H₂During the reaction of O, H is newly generated₂The O catalyst and H may form species that further react to form hydrinos. An exemplary solid fuel reaction and possible redox pathway is

3MoO₂+4LiOH→2Li₂MoO₄+Mo+2H₂O (105)

2MoO₂+4LiOH→2Li₂MoO₄+2H₂(106)

O^2-→1/2O₂+2e^-(107)

2H₂O+2e^-→2OH^-+H₂(108)

2H₂O+2e-→2OH-+H+H(1/4) (109)

Mo⁴⁺+4e^-→Mo (110)

The reaction may also include a source of hydrogen (such as hydrogen gas) and a dissociating agent (such as Pd/Al)₂O₃). The hydrogen may be any one or combination of protium, deuterium, or tritium. For forming H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include the reaction of two hydroxides to form water. The cations of the hydroxides may have different oxidation states (such as the reaction of an alkali metal hydroxide with a transition metal or alkaline earth hydroxide). The reaction mixture and reaction may also include and involve H from a source₂As given in the exemplary reaction:

LiOH+2Co(OH)₂+1/2H₂→LiCoO₂+3H₂O+Co (111)

the reaction mixture and reaction may also include and involve a metal M such as a base or an alkaline earth metal, as given in the exemplary reaction:

M+LiOH+Co(OH)₂→LiCoO₂+H₂O+MH (112)

in embodiments, the reaction mixture comprises a metal oxide and a hydroxide that can be used as a source of H and optionally another source of H, wherein the metal (such as Fe) in the metal oxide can have multiple oxidation states such that it reacts to form H₂O undergoes a redox reaction during reaction with H to form hydrinos for use as a catalyst. Exemplified is FeO, where Fe²⁺Can undergo oxidation to Fe during the reaction to form the catalyst³⁺. An exemplary reaction is

FeO +3LiOH to H₂O+LiFeO₂+H(1/p)+Li₂O (113)

In embodiments, at least one reactant, such as a metal oxide, hydroxide, or hydroxide, is used as the oxidizing agent, wherein metal atoms, such as Fe, Ni, Mo, or Mn, may be in a higher oxidation state than another possible oxidation state. The reaction to form the catalyst and the hydrinos may cause the atoms to undergo reduction to at least one lower oxidation state. Form H₂An exemplary reaction of the metal oxide, hydroxide, and hydroxide of the O catalyst is

2KOH+NiO→K₂NiO₂+H₂O (114)

3KOH+NiO→KNiO₂+H₂O+K₂O+1/2H₂(115)

2KOH+Ni₂O₃→2KNiO₂+H₂O (116)

4KOH+Ni₂O₃→2K₂NiO₂+2H₂O+1/2O₂(117)

2KOH+Ni(OH)₂→K₂NiO₂+2H₂O (118)

2LiOH+MoO₃→Li₂MoO₄+H₂O (119)

3KOH+Ni(OH)₂→KNiO₂+2H₂O+K₂O+1/2H₂(120)

2KOH+2NiOOH→K₂NiO₂+2H₂O+NiO+1/2O₂(121)

KOH+NiOOH→KNiO₂+H₂O (122)

2NaOH+Fe₂O₃→2NaFeO₂+H₂O (123)

Other transition metals such As Ni, Fe, Cr and Ti, internal transition metals, rare earth metals and other metals or metalloids such As Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se and Te may be substituted for Ni or Fe, and other alkali metals such As Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs may be substituted for K or Na. In embodiments, the reaction mixture includes for H₂O (e.g., Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In). In addition, the reaction mixture includes, for example, H₂A source of gaseous hydrogen and (optionally) a dissociating agent such as a noble metal on a support. In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises at least one metal halide (such as, for example, a bromide (such as, for example, FeBr)₂) At least one transition metal halide) and a metal forming a hydroxide, or oxide and H₂A mixture of O. In embodiments, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a metal oxide, hydroxide, and hydroxide compound (such as, for example, Ni)₂O₃And H₂At least one transition metal oxide of O).

An exemplary reaction of the basic anhydride NiO with the acid HCl is

2HCl+NiO→H₂O+NiCl₂(124)

Wherein the dehydration reaction corresponding to a base is

Ni(OH)₂→H₂O+NiO (125)

The reactants may include at least one of a Lewis acid or base and a Bronsted-Lowry acid or base. The reaction mixture and reaction may also include and involve an oxygenate, wherein an acid reacts with the oxygenate to form water, as set forth in the exemplary reaction:

2HX+POX₃→H₂O+PX₅(126)

(X ═ halide). Similar to POX₃Are suitable (such as, for example, compounds in which P is substituted with S). Other suitable exemplary anhydrides may include oxides of acid-soluble elements, metals, alloys, or mixtures (such as hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, or oxides containing an alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, or rare earth metal such as one from the group of Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co, and Mg, or Al, Ca, In, Sn, or Pb). The corresponding oxide may comprise MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃、NiO、Ni₂O₃FeO or Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃、MnO、Mn₃O₄、Mn₂O₃、MnO₂、Mn₂O₇、HfO₂、Co₂O₃、CoO、Co₃O₄、Co₂O₃And MgO. Other suitable exemplary oxides are those of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. In exemplary embodiments, the acid comprises a hydrohalic acid and the product is H₂O and metal halides of oxides. The reaction mixture also includes a source of hydrogen (such as H)₂Gas) and dissociating agents (such as Pt/C), among which, H and H₂The O catalyst reacts to form hydrinos.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel comprises H₂Source (such as, osmose)Permeable membrane) or H₂Gas and dissociation agent (such as Pt/C) and oxygen-containing H₂Sources of O catalysts or reduction to H₂A hydroxide of O. The metal of the oxide or hydroxide may form a metal hydride that serves as a source of H. Alkali hydroxides and oxides (such as LiOH and Li)₂An exemplary reaction of O) is

LiOH+H₂→H₂O+LiH (127)

Li₂O+H₂→LiOH+LiH (128)

The reaction mixture may include undergoing reduction of hydrogen to H₂Oxides or hydroxides of metals of O (such as oxides or hydroxides of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In) and sources of hydrogen (such as H₂Gas) and a dissociating agent (such as Pt/C).

In another embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises H₂Source (such as H)₂Gas) and dissociating agents (such as Pt/C) and peroxy compounds (such as H)₂O₂) The peroxide compound being decomposed to H₂O catalyst and other products containing oxygen (such as O)₂)。H₂And decomposition products (such as O)₂) Some of which may react to form H as well₂And (3) an O catalyst.

In an embodiment, for forming H as a catalyst₂The reaction of O includes the formation of an aldehyde and H₂Organic dehydration of O (such as organic dehydration of alcohols such as polyols (such as sugars)). In embodiments, the dehydration reaction involves liberation of H from the terminal alcohol₂O, forming an aldehyde. The terminal alcohol may include liberation of H which may be used as a catalyst₂A sugar of O or a derivative thereof. Suitable exemplary alcohols are erythritol, galactitol or hexitol, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Exemplary reaction mixtures include a saccharide + hydrogen dissociation agent (such as Pd/Al)₂O₃+H₂). Alternatively, the reaction includes metal salt(s)E.g., a metal salt having at least one water of hydration). In an embodiment, dehydration includes hydrating a hydrate (such as a hydrated ion) and a salt hydrate (such as BaI)₂2H₂O and EuBr₂nH₂O) loss of H to be used as catalyst₂O。

In an embodiment, for forming H₂The reaction of the O catalyst includes oxygen (such as CO), oxygen ions (such as MNO)₃(M ═ base)), metal oxides (such as NiO, Ni)₂O₃、Fe₂O₃Or SnO), hydroxides (such as Co (OH)₂) Compounds of hydrogen compounds (such as FeOOH, CoOOH, and NiOOH) and compounds capable of being reduced to H by hydrogen₂The hydrogen reduction of compounds of O, oxygen ions, oxides, hydroxides, peroxides, superoxides, and other components of oxygen-containing species (such as those of the present disclosure). An exemplary compound containing oxygen or oxygen ions is SOCl₂、Na₂S₂O₃、NaMnO₄、POBr₃、K₂S₂O₈、CO、CO₂、NO、NO₂、P₂O₅、N₂O₅、N₂O、SO₂、I₂O₅、NaClO₂、NaClO、K₂SO₄And KHSO₄. The source of hydrogen for hydrogen reduction may be H₂A gas and a hydride such as a metal hydride (such as a hydride of the present disclosure). The reaction mixture may also include a reducing agent that can form oxygen-containing compounds or ions. The cation of the oxygen ion may form a product compound that includes another anion (such as a halide, other chalcogenide, phosphide, other oxygen ion, nitride, silicide, arsenide, or other anion of the present disclosure). An exemplary reaction is

4NaNO₃(c)+5MgH₂(c)→5MgO(c)+4NaOH(c)+3H₂O(l)+2N₂(g) (129)

P₂O₅(c)+6NaH(c)→2Na₃PO₄(c)+3H₂O(g) (130)

NaClO₄(c)+2MgH₂(c)→2MgO(c)+NaCl(c)+2H₂O(l) (131)

KHSO₄+4H₂→KHS+4H₂O (132)

K₂SO₄+4H₂→2KOH+2H₂O+H₂S (133)

LiNO₃+4H₂→LiNH₂+3H₂O (134)

GeO₂+2H₂→Ge+2H₂O (135)

CO₂+H₂→C+2H₂O (136)

PbO₂+2H₂→2H₂O+Pb (137)

V₂O₅+5H₂→2V+5H₂O (138)

Co(OH)₂+H₂→Co+2H₂O (139)

Fe₂O₃+3H₂→2Fe+3H₂O (140)

3Fe₂O₃+H₂→2Fe₃O₄+H₂O (141)

Fe₂O₃+H₂→2FeO+H₂O (142)

Ni₂O₃+3H₂→2Ni+3H₂O (143)

3Ni₂O₃+H₂→2Ni₃O₄+H₂O (144)

Ni₂O₃+H₂→2NiO+H₂O (145)

3FeOOH+1/2H₂→Fe₃O₄+2H₂O (146)

3NiOOH+1/2H₂→Ni₃O₄+2H₂O (147)

3CoOOH+1/2H₂→Co₃O₄+2H₂O (148)

FeOOH+1/2H₂→FeO+H₂O (149)

NiOOH+1/2H₂→NiO+H₂O (150)

CoOOH+1/2H₂→CoO+H₂O (151)

SnO+H₂→Sn+H₂O (152)

The reaction mixture may include a source of anions or anions and a source of oxygen or oxygen (such as an oxygen-containing compound), wherein H is formed₂The reactant for O comprises an anion-oxygen exchange reaction, optionally H from a source₂Reaction with oxygen to form H₂And O. An exemplary reaction is

2NaOH+H₂+S→Na₂S+2H₂O (153)

2NaOH+H₂+Te→Na₂Te+2H₂O (154)

2NaOH+H₂+Se→Na₂Se+2H₂O (155)

LiOH+NH₃→LiNH₂+H₂O (156)

In another embodiment, the reaction mixture includes exchange reactions between chalcogenides (such as exchange reactions between O and S-containing reactants). Exemplary chalcogenide reactants, such as tetrahedral ammonium tetrathiomolybdate, comprise ([ MoS)₄]^2-) An anion. For forming nascent H₂An exemplary reaction of an O catalyst and (optionally) nascent H includes molybdate [ MoO ] in the presence of ammonia gas₄]^2-Reaction with hydrogen sulfide:

[NH₄]₂[MoO₄]+4H₂S→[NH₄]₂[MoS₄]+4H₂O (157)

in an embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen, an oxygen-containing compound, and at least one element capable of forming an alloy with at least one other element of the reaction mixture. For forming H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include an exchange reaction of oxygen in an oxygen-containing compound and an element capable of forming an alloy with a cation in the oxygen compound, wherein the oxygen reacts with hydrogen from the source to form H₂And O. An exemplary reaction is

NaOH+1/2H₂+Pd→NaPb+H₂O (158)

NaOH+1/2H₂+Bi→NaBi+H₂O (159)

NaOH+1/2H₂+2Cd→Cd₂Na+H₂O (160)

NaOH+1/2H₂+4Ga→Ga₄Na+H₂O (161)

NaOH+1/2H₂+Sn→NaSn+H₂O (162)

NaAlH₄+Al(OH)₃+5Ni→NaAlO₂+Ni₅Al+H₂O+5/2H₂(163)

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises an oxygen-containing compound (such as a hydroxide compound) and an oxide-forming reducing agent (such as a metal). For forming H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include the reaction of a hydrogen hydroxide compound with a metal to form a metal oxide and H₂And O. An exemplary reaction is

2MnOOH+Sn→2MnO+SnO+H₂O (164)

4MnOOH+Sn→4MnO+SnO₂+2H₂O (165)

2MnOOH+Zn→2MnO+ZnO+H₂O (166)

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises an oxygen-containing compound (such as a hydroxide), a source of hydrogen, at least one other compound containing a different anion (such as a halide or another element). For forming H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include reacting the hydroxide with another compound or element, wherein the anion or element is exchanged with the hydroxide to form another compound of the anion or element, and wherein the hydroxide reacts with H₂Reaction to form H₂And O. The anion may comprise a halide. An exemplary reaction is

2NaOH+NiCl₂+H₂→2NaCl+2H₂O+Ni (167)

2NaOH+I₂+H₂→2NaI+2H₂O (168)

2NaOH+XeF₂+H₂→2NaF+2H₂O+Xe (169)

BiX₃(X ═ halide) +4Bi (OH)₃→3BiOX+Bi₂O₃+6H₂O (170)

The hydroxide and halide compounds may be selected to be useful in forming H₂The reaction of O and another halide is thermally reversible. In an embodiment, the overall exchange reaction is

NaOH+1/2H₂+1/yM_xCl_y＝NaCl+6H₂O+x/yM (171)

Wherein, exemplary Compound M_xCl_yIs AlCl₃、BeCl₂、HfCl₄、KAgCl₂、MnCl₂、NaAlCl₄、ScCl₃、TiCl₂、TiCl₃、UCl₃、UCl₄、ZrCl₄、EuCl₃、GdCl₃、MgCl₂、NdCl₃And YCl₃. At elevated temperatures, the reaction of equation (171), such as in the range of about 100 ℃ to 2000 ℃, has at least one of an enthalpy and a free energy of about 0kJ and is reversible. The reversible temperature was calculated using the corresponding thermodynamic parameters for each reaction. A representative temperature range is about 800K to 900K NaCl-ScCl₃About 300K to about 400K of NaCl-TiCl₂About 600K to about 800K NaCl-UCl₃About 250K to about 300K NaCl-UCl₄About 250K to about 300K of NaCl-ZrCl₄About 900K to about 1300K NaCl-MgCl₂About 900K to 1000K NaCl-EuCl₃About>1000K NaCl-NdCl₃About>1000K NaCl-YCl₃。

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture includes oxides such As metal oxides (such As alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metal oxides) and oxides of other metals and metalloids such As Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, such As M₂O₂(such as Li)₂O₂、Na₂O₂、K₂O₂) Wherein M is an alkali metal, such as MO₂(such as NaO)₂、KO₂、RbO₂And CsO₂Superoxide (which isWhere M is an alkali metal), and alkaline earth metal superoxide, and sources of hydrogen. The ionic peroxide may also include peroxides of Ca, Sr, or Ba. For forming H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include the reduction of oxides, peroxides, or superoxides with hydrogen to form H₂And O. An exemplary reaction is

Na₂O+2H₂→2NaH+H₂O (172)

Li₂O₂+H₂→Li₂O+H₂O (173)

KO₂+3/2H₂→KOH+H₂O (174)

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen (such as H)₂A hydride such as at least one of an alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metal hydride and those of the present disclosure) and a source of hydrogen or other flammable hydrogen-containing compounds (such as metal amides) and a source of oxygen (such as O)₂). For forming H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include oxidizing H₂Hydrides, or hydrogen compounds (such as metal amides) to form H₂And O. An exemplary reaction is

2NaH+O₂→Na₂O+H₂O (175)

H₂+1/2O₂→H₂O (176)

LiNH₂+2O₂→LiNO₃+H₂O (177)

2LiNH₂+3/2O₂→2LiOH+H₂O+N₂(178)

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogen and a source of oxygen. For forming H₂The reaction of the O catalyst may include decomposing at least one of a source of hydrogen and a source of oxygen to form H₂And O. An exemplary reaction is

NH₄NO₃→N₂O+2H₂O (179)

NH₄NO₃→N₂+1/2O₂+2H₂O (180)

H₂O₂→1/2O₂+H₂O (181)

H₂O₂+H₂→2H₂O (182)

The reaction mixture disclosed herein in this "chemical reactor section" also includes a source of hydrogen for forming hydrinos. The source may be a source of atomic fractional hydrogen (such as hydrogen dissociator and H)₂Gas) or metal hydrides (such as dissociating agents and metal hydrides of the present disclosure). The source of hydrogen for providing atomic hydrogen may be a hydrogen-containing compound such as a hydroxide or oxyhydroxide. The H reacted to form hydrinos may be nascent H formed by reaction of one or more reactants (at least one of which includes a source of hydrogen), such as hydroxide and oxide reactions. The reaction may also form H₂And (3) an O catalyst. The oxide and hydroxide may comprise the same compound. For example, a hydroxide compound such as FeOOH can be dehydrated to give H₂O catalyst and also gives the nascent H for the hydrino reaction during dehydration:

4FeOOH→H₂O+Fe₂O₃+2FeO+O₂+2H(1/4) (183)

wherein the nascent H formed during the reaction reacts to become hydrinos. Other exemplary reactions are the reaction of hydroxides and hydroxides or oxides of hydrogen (such as NaOH + FeOOH or Fe)₂O₃) To form, for example, NaFeO₂+H₂An alkali metal oxide of O, wherein the nascent H formed during the reaction may form hydrinos, wherein H₂O is used as a catalyst. The oxide and hydroxide may comprise the same compound. For example, a hydroxide compound such as FeOOH can be dehydrated to give H₂O catalyst and also gives the nascent H for the hydrino reaction during dehydration:

4FeOOH→H₂O+Fe₂O₃+2FeO+O₂+2H(1/4) (184)

wherein the nascent H formed during the reaction reacts to become hydrinos. Other exemplary reactions are the reaction of hydroxides and hydroxides or oxides of hydrogen (such as NaOH + FeOOH or Fe)₂O₃) To form, for example, NaFeO₂+H₂An alkali metal oxide of O, wherein the nascent H formed during the reaction may form hydrinos, wherein H₂O is used as a catalyst. Formation of H from hydroxide ion₂O and oxide ions are reduced and oxidized. The oxide ion can react with H₂O reacts to form OH^-. The same pathway can be obtained by hydroxide-halide exchange reactions (such as the following reactions)

2M(OH)₂+2M'X₂→H₂O+2MX₂+2M'O+1/2O₂+2H(1/4) (185)

Wherein exemplary M and M' metals are alkaline earth and transition metals (such as Cu (OH)₂+FeBr₂、Cu(OH)₂+CuBr₂Or Co (OH)₂+CuBr₂). In an embodiment, the solid fuel may comprise a metal hydroxide and a metal halide, wherein at least one metal is Fe. H may be added₂O and H₂To regenerate the reactants. In embodiments, M and M' may be selected from the group of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, group 13, 14, 15, and 16 tuples, and other cations of hydroxides or halides (such as those of the present disclosure). Exemplary reactants for forming at least one of HOH catalyst, nascent H, and hydrino are

4MOH+4M'X→H₂O+2M'₂O+M₂O+2MX+X₂+2H(1/4) (186)

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture includes at least one of a hydroxide and a halide compound (such as those reaction mixtures of the present disclosure). In an embodiment, the halide may be used to facilitate at least one of the formation and retention of at least one of a nascent HOH catalyst and H. In embodiments, the mixture may be used to lower the melting point of the reaction mixture.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a mixture of Mg (OH)₂+CuBr₂. The product CuBr can sublime to form a CuBr condensation product that separates from the less volatile MgO. Br can be trapped by cold trap₂. CuBr can react with Br₂Reaction to form CuBr₂MgO may be reacted with H₂O reaction to form Mg (OH)₂。Mg(OH)₂Can be reacted with CuBr₂Combining to form the regenerated solid fuel.

The acid-base reaction being the formation of H₂Another method of O catalyst. Thus, the thermochemical reaction is similar to the electrochemical reaction used to form the hydrinos. Exemplary halide and hydroxide mixtures are mixtures and hydroxides of Bi, Cd, Cu, Co, Mo and Cd and mixtures of halides of metals with low water reactivity having the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, and Zn. In embodiments, the reaction mixture further includes a catalyst useful as H and (such as, for example, nascent H)₂H of a source of at least one of O)₂And O. The water may be in the form of a hydrate that decomposes or otherwise reacts during the reaction.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel comprises H₂O and formation of nascent H and nascent H₂Reaction mixture of inorganic compounds of O. The inorganic compound may include a compound of formula (I) and (II)₂O reactive halides (such as metal halides). The reaction product may be at least one of a hydroxide, oxide, oxyhalide, hydroxyhalide, and hydrate. Other products may include oxygen and halogen containing anions (such as XO)^-、And(X ═ halogen)). The product may also be at least one of reduced cations and halogen gas. The halide may be a metal halide (such As one of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metals and halide-forming Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge, and B, and other elements). The metal or element can additionally be one that forms at least one of a hydroxide, oxide, oxyhalide, hydroxyhalide, and hydrate, and forms an anion having oxygen and halogen (such as XO)^-、And(X ═ halogen)) or an element of a compound. Suitable exemplary metals and elements are alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metals and at least one of Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge, and B. An exemplary reaction is

5MX₂+7H₂O→MXOH+M(OH)₂+MO+M₂O₃+11H(1/4)+9/2X₂(187)

Wherein M is a metal (such as a transition metal such as Cu) and X is a halogen (such as Cl).

In an embodiment, H₂O is used to maintain low concentrations to provide nascent H₂O, or a salt thereof. In an embodiment, by reacting H₂The O molecules are dispersed in another material (such as a solid, liquid, or gas) to achieve a low concentration. H₂The O molecule can be diluted up to the limit of isolating the nascent molecule. The material also includes a source of H. The material may comprise an ionic compound (such as an alkali halide, such as a potassium halide (such as KCl))Or transition metal halides (such as CuBr)₂). Also, low concentrations for the formation of nascent H can be achieved dynamically, wherein H is formed by reaction₂And O. Product H can be removed at a rate relative to the rate of formation resulting in steady state low energy₂O to provide at least one of nascent H and nascent HOH. For forming H₂The reaction of O may include dehydration, combustion, acid-base reactions, and others (such as the reactions of the present disclosure). H can be removed by means such as evaporation and condensation₂And O. Exemplary reactants are for the formation of iron oxide and H₂FeOOH of O, wherein further reaction is used to form nascent H to form hydrinos. Other exemplary reaction mixture is Fe₂O₃+ NaOH and H₂And FeOOH + NaOH and H₂At least one of (1). The reaction mixture may be maintained at an elevated temperature (such as in the range of about 100 ℃ to 600 ℃). H can be removed by condensing the stream at a cold spot of the reactor (such as a gas line maintained below 100 ℃)₂And (4) O product. In another embodiment, containing H₂O as a mixture or inclusion of a compound or a material that is part of a compound, such as H dispersed or absorbed in a lattice (such as a lattice of ionic compounds, such as alkali halides, such as potassium halides, such as KCl)₂O) may be accompanied by bombardment by energetic particles. The particles may include at least one of photons, ions, and electrons. The particles may comprise a beam such as an electron beam. Bombardment can provide H₂At least one of an O catalyst, H, and activation of a reaction for forming hydrinos. In an embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell, H₂The O content may be high. Can be ignited by high currents₂O, forming hydrinos at a high rate.

The reaction mixture may also include a support (such as an electrically conductive, high surface area support). Suitable exemplary supports are those of the present disclosure (e.g., metal powders such as Ni or R — Ni, metal screens such as Ni, Ni celmet, Ni mesh, carbon, carbides such as TiC and WC, and borides). The support may include a dissociating agent such as Pd/C or Pd/C. The reactants can have any desired molar ratio. In an embodiment, the stoichiometry isIs advantageous for forming H₂The reaction of the O catalyst is complete to provide H for the formation of hydrinos. The reaction temperature may be in any desired range (such as in the range of about ambient temperature to 1500 ℃). The pressure range may be any desired, such as in the range of about 0.01 torr to 500 atm. These reactions are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety and in previous applications in Mills (such as PCT/US08/61455 "hydrogene Catalyst Reactor" (PCT submitted on 24/4/2008); PCT/US09/052072 "heterogeneogenetic Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor" (PCT submitted on 29/7/2009); PCT/US10/27828 "heterogeneogenetic Hydrogen Catalyst Power System" (PCT submitted on 18/3/2010); PCT/US11/28889 "electrochemial Hydrocarbon Catalyst Power System" (PCT submitted on 17/3/2011); PCT/US12/31369 "H₂O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System "(3, 30, 2012 submitted); the method disclosed in PCT/US13/041938 "CIHT Power System" (filed 5/21/2013)) is at least one of regenerative and reversible. The consumption of H can be allowed to proceed by varying the reaction conditions (such as temperature and pressure) as is known to those skilled in the art₂By reverse reaction of O to form H₂The reaction of O is reversible. For example, in a reverse reaction, H₂The O pressure can be increased to convert the reactants with the product by rehydration. In other cases, the catalyst may be oxidized (such as by reaction with oxygen and H)₂At least one of O) is reacted) to regenerate the products reduced by hydrogen. In embodiments, the reverse reaction product may be eliminated from the reaction, allowing the reverse or regeneration reaction to proceed. Since there is no longer at least one reverse reaction product, the reverse reaction becomes favored even in the absence of the advantage based on equilibrium thermodynamics. In an exemplary embodiment, the regenerated reactants (reverse or regenerated reaction products) include hydroxides such as alkali hydroxides. The hydroxide may be removed by methods such as melting or sublimation. In the latter case, the alkali hydroxide sublimes, unchanged at a temperature in the range of about 350 ℃ to 400 ℃. The reaction can be maintained in the power plant system of the Mills prior application. The heat energy from the power generation cell can be regenerated to at least oneThe other battery provides heat, as previously disclosed. Alternatively, the formation of H can be used by varying the temperature of the water cooled walls of the system design with temperature gradients due to coolant at selected regions of the cell as previously disclosed₂The equilibrium between the reaction of the O catalyst and the reverse regeneration reaction shifts.

In embodiments, the halide and oxide may undergo an exchange reaction. The products of the exchange reaction may be separated from each other. The exchange reaction may be performed by heating the product mixture. The separation may be by sublimation, which may be driven by at least one of heating and applying a vacuum. In exemplary embodiments, CaBr₂And CuO may undergo an exchange reaction due to heating to an elevated temperature, such as in the range of about 700 ℃ to 900 ℃, to form CuBr₂And CaO. Any other suitable temperature range may be used, such as in the range of about 100 ℃ to 2000 ℃. CuBr can be separated and collected by sublimation₂Sublimation can be achieved by applying heat and low pressure. CuBr₂A separation zone may be formed. CaO can be reacted with H₂O reaction to form Ca (OH)₂。

In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a source of singlet oxygen. An exemplary reaction for generating singlet oxygen is

NaOCl+H₂O₂→O₂+NaCl+H₂O (188)

In another embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a source or reagent of a Fenton reaction (Fenton reaction), such as H₂O₂)。

In embodiments, a catalyst comprising at least one of H and O (such as H) is used₂O) to synthesize lower energy hydrogen species and compounds. The reaction mixture used to synthesize the exemplary lower energy hydrogen compound MHX (where M is a base and can be another metal such as an alkaline earth, where the compound has the corresponding stoichiometry, H is a fractional hydrogen (such as a fractional hydride anion), and X is an anion such as a halide) includes sources of M and X (such as,alkali halides such as KCl, metal reductants such as alkali metals, hydrogen dissociators such as Ni (such as Ni mesh or R-Ni) and optionally supports such as carbon), such as substituted M and H₂A source of hydrogen, at least one metal hydride of gas, such as MH, and a source of oxygen, such as a metal oxide or an oxygen-containing compound. An exemplary suitable metal oxide is Fe₂O₃、Cr₂O₃And NiO. The reaction temperature may be maintained in the range of about 200 ℃ to 1500 ℃ or about 400 ℃ to 800 ℃. The reactants may be in any desired ratio. The reaction mixture for forming KHCl may include K, Ni mesh, KCl, hydrogen, and Fe₂O₃、Cr₂O₃And NiO. Exemplary weights and conditions are 1.6g K, 20g KCl, 40g Ni mesh, metal oxide (such as 1.5g Fe)₂O₃And 1.5g of NiO), oxygen in an equimolar amount to K, 1atm H₂And a reaction temperature of about 550 ℃ and 600 ℃. The reaction forms H by reacting H with O in the metal oxide₂O catalyst and H reacts with the catalyst to form hydrinos and hydrino anions, which form the product KHCl. The reaction mixture for forming the KHI may include K, R-Ni, KI, hydrogen, and Fe₂O₃、Cr₂O₃And NiO. Exemplary weights and conditions are 1g K, 20g KI, 15g R-Ni 2800, metal oxides (such as 1g Fe₂O₃And 1g of NiO), oxygen in an equimolar amount to K, 1atm H₂And a reaction temperature of about 450 ℃ to about 500 ℃. The reaction forms H by reacting H with O in the metal oxide₂O catalyst and H reacts with the catalyst to form hydrinos and hydrino anions, which form the product KHI. In an embodiment, the product of at least one of a CIHT cell, SF-CIHT cell, solid fuel, or chemical cell is H that causes displacement of the H NMR matrix toward a high magnetic field₂(1/4). In embodiments, the presence of hydrino species (such as hydrino atoms or molecules) in a solid matrix (such as a matrix of hydroxide such as NaOH or KOH) causes the matrix protons to be displaced towards a high magnetic field. The substrate protons (e.g., of NaOH or KOH) are exchangeable. In factIn embodiments, the shift may result in a matrix peak in the range of about-0.1 to-5 ppm relative to TMS.

In embodiments, the hydrogen may be removed by adding at least one H₂And H₂O to a mixture of hydroxide and halide compounds (such as Cu (OH))₂+CuBr₂) The regeneration reaction of (1). Products such as halides and oxides may be separated by sublimation of the halide. In an embodiment, H may be added to the reaction mixture under heating₂O to cause hydroxides and halides (such as CuBr)₂And Cu (OH)₂) A reaction product is formed. In an embodiment, regeneration may be achieved by a step of thermal cycling. In embodiments, such as CuBr₂The halide of (A) is H₂O is soluble, such as Cu (OH)₂Is insoluble. The regenerated compound can be isolated by filtration or precipitation. The chemicals may be dried, wherein the thermal energy may come from the reaction. Heat can be recovered by carrying away water vapour. The recovery may be by heat exchangers or by using steam directly for heating, or for generating electricity using, for example, turbines and generators. In an embodiment, by using chromatography H₂O catalyst to effect regeneration of Cu (OH) with CuO₂. Suitable catalysts are supports (such as Pt/Al)₂O₃And by sintering CuO and Al₂O₃To form CuAlO₂Cobalt-phosphorus, cobalt borate, cobalt methyl borate, nickel borate, RuO₂、LaMnO₃、SrTiO₃、TiO₂And WO₃) The noble metal of (a). For forming precipitate H₂An exemplary method of O catalyst is Co in approximately 0.1M potassium phosphate borate electrolyte at potentials of 0.92V and 1.15V (vs. normal hydrogen electrode), respectively, and pH 9.2²⁺And Ni²⁺Controlled electrolytic reaction of the solution. Illustratively, the thermally reversible solid fuel cycle is

T 100 2CuBr₂+Ca(OH)₂→2CuO+2CaBr₂+H₂O (189)

T 730 CaBr₂+2H₂O→Ca(OH)₂+2HBr (190)

T 100 CuO+2HBr→CuBr₂+H₂O (191)

T 100 2CuBr₂+Cu(OH)₂→2CuO+2CaBr₂+H₂O (192)

T 730 CuBr₂+2H₂O→Cu(OH)₂+2HBr (193)

T 100 CuO+2HBr→CuBr₂+H₂O (194)

In an embodiment, H is selected to have as a reactant₂And H as a product₂A solid fuel of at least one of O and H as at least one of a reactant and a product₂Or H₂O such that the maximum theoretical free energy of any conventional reaction is about 0 in the range of-500 to +500kJ/mole limiting reagent or preferably in the range of-100 to +100kJ/mole limiting reagent. The mixture of reactants and products may be maintained at one or more of an optimal temperature at which the free energy is approximately 0 and an optimal temperature at which the reaction is approximately reversible to obtain regenerative or steady power for a duration at least longer than the reaction time without maintaining the mixture and temperature. The temperature may be optimally within a range of about +/-500 ℃ or about +/-100 ℃. Exemplary mixtures and reaction temperatures are 800K Fe, Fe₂O₃、H₂And H₂Stoichiometric mixture of O and stoichiometric Sn, SnO, H of 800K₂And H₂O。

In which alkali metals M (such as K or Li) and (n ═ integer), OH, O, 2O, O₂And H₂In embodiments where at least one of O is used as a catalyst, the source of H is at least one of a metal hydride such as MH and at least one of a metal M and a metal hydride MH reacts with the source of H to form H. One product may be oxidized M (such as an oxide or hydroxide). For forming atomic hydrogenThe reaction with at least one of the catalysts may be an electron transport reaction or a redox reaction. The reaction mixture may also include H₂H, such as Ni mesh or R-Ni₂Dissociating agents (such as, H of the present disclosure)₂Dissociating agents) and electrically conductive carriers such as these and others as well as the carriers of the present disclosure (such as carbon and carbides, borides, and carbonitrides). An exemplary oxidation reaction of M or MH is

4MH+Fe₂O₃→+H₂O+H(1/p)+M₂O+MOH+2Fe+M(195)

Wherein H₂At least one of O and M may be used as a catalyst for H (1/p) formation. The reaction mixture may also include a hydrino getter, such as a compound, such as a salt, such as a halide salt, such as an alkali halide salt, such as KCl or KI. The product may be MHX (M ═ a metal such as an alkali; X is a counter ion such as a halide; H is a fractional hydrogen species). Other hydrino catalysts may be substituted for M, such as those of the present disclosure, such as those in table 1.

In an embodiment, the source of oxygen is a compound having a heat of formation that approximates that of water, such that oxygen exchange between the reduction product of the oxygen source compound and hydrogen occurs within a minimum energy release. Suitable exemplary oxygen source compounds are CdO, CuO, ZnO, SO₂、SeO₂And TeO₂. When H is present₂The source of the O catalyst being MnO_x、AlO_xAnd SiO_xOther such metal oxides may also be anhydrides of acids or bases that can undergo dehydration reactions, when desired. In embodiments, the oxide layer oxygen source may encompass a source of hydrogen such as a metal hydride (e.g., palladium hydride). The formation of H can begin by heating an oxide-coated hydrogen source, such as a metal oxide-coated palladium hydride₂The reaction of the O catalyst with the atomic H which further reacts to form a fractional hydrogen. Palladium hydride may be coated on the opposite side of the oxygen source through a hydrogen impermeable layer (such as a layer of gold film) to cause the released hydrogen to selectively migrate to the source of oxygen (such as an oxide layer of a metal oxide). In the implementation ofIn this manner, the reaction and regeneration reactions for forming the hydrino catalyst include oxygen exchange between the oxygen source compound and hydrogen and between water and the reducing oxygen source compound, respectively. Suitable sources of reducing oxygen are Cd, Cu, Zn, S, Se and Te. In an embodiment, the oxygen exchange reaction may include an oxygen exchange reaction for thermally forming hydrogen gas. Exemplary thermal methods are iron oxide cycles, cerium (IV) oxide-cerium (III) oxide cycles, zinc oxide zinc cycles, sulfur-iodine cycles, copper-chlorine cycles, and mixed sulfur cycles, and others known to those skilled in the art. In an embodiment, the reaction for forming the hydrino catalyst and the regeneration reaction, such as an oxygen exchange reaction, occur simultaneously in the same reaction vessel. Conditions such as temperature and pressure can be controlled to achieve simultaneity of the reaction. Alternatively, the removal and regeneration of the product in at least one other separation vessel can occur under conditions different from those of the power forming reaction, as set forth in the present disclosure and in the previous applications to Mills.

In embodiments, such as LiNH₂NH of an amide of₂The group was used as a catalyst where the potential energy was about 81.6eV corresponding to m-3 in equation (5). Analogous to reversible H between addition of acid or base to anhydride₂O removal or addition reactions (and vice versa), reversible reactions between amides and imides or nitrides leading to the formation of NH₂Catalyst, NH₂The catalyst further reacts with atomic H to form hydrinos. The reversible reaction between the amide and at least one of the imide and the nitride may also serve as a source of hydrogen (such as the atom H).

In embodiments, by H and OH and H₂Reaction of at least one of the O catalysts to synthesize a hydrino species such as molecular hydrino or hydrino anion. By means of metals such As alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, and Te, such As LaNi₅H₆Metal hydrides of (a) and other metal hydrides of the present disclosure, aqueous hydroxide solutions such as 0.1M up to a saturation concentration of alkali hydroxide (e.g., KOH), water-based hydroxides such as carbon, Pt/C, water carbon, carbon black, carbonAt least two of the group of compounds, borides, or nitriles, and a carrier for oxygen to generate hydrino species. Suitable exemplary reaction mixtures for forming hydrino species (such as, molecular hydrino) are (1) O-containing₂And does not contain O₂CoPtC KOH (saturated), (2) Zn or Sn + LaNi₅H₆+ KOH (saturated), (3) Co, Sn, Sb, or Zn + O₂+ CB + KOH (saturated), (4) Al CB KOH (saturated), (5) containing O₂And does not contain O₂Sn Ni-coated graphite KOH (saturated), (6) Sn + SC or CB + KOH (saturated) + O₂And (7) Zn Pt/C KOH (saturated) O₂And (8) Zn R-Ni KOH (saturated) O₂、(9)Sn LaNi₅H₆KOH (saturated) O₂、(10)Sb LaNi₅H₆KOH (saturated) O₂(11) Co, Sn, Zn, Pb, or Sb + KOH (saturated solution) + K₂CO₃+ CB-SA, and (12) LiNH₂LiBr and LiH or Li and H₂Or a source thereof and (optionally) a hydrogen dissociating agent such as Ni or R-Ni. Additional reaction mixtures include a molten hydroxide, a source of hydrogen, a source of oxygen, and a hydrogen dissociating agent. A suitable exemplary reaction mixture for forming hydrino species, such as molecular hydrino, is (1) Ni (H)₂) LiOH-LiBr gas or O₂、(2)Ni(H₂) NaOH-NaBr gas or O₂And (3) Ni (H)₂) KOH-NaBr gas or O₂。

In embodiments, the product of at least one of the chemical, SF-CIHT and CIHT cell reactions used to form hydrinos is a mixture comprising hydrinos or lower energy hydrogen species (such as H complexed with inorganic compounds)₂(1/p)). The compound may include an oxyanion compound (such as an alkali or alkaline earth carbonate or hydroxide or other such compound of the present disclosure). In an embodiment, the product comprises M₂CO₃·H₂(1/4) and MOH. H₂(1/4) (M ═ base or other cations of the present disclosure) at least one of the complexes. The products can be identified by ToF-SIMS as respectively comprisingAndwherein n is an integer and the integer p are>1 may be substituted with 4. In embodiments, a silicon and oxygen containing compound (such as SiO)₂Or quartz) can be used as H₂(1/4) a getter. H₂The getter of (1/4) may include transition metals, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals, combinations of these metals, alloys such as Mo alloys (e.g., MoCu), hydrogen storage materials (e.g., hydrogen storage materials of the present disclosure).

The lower energy hydrogen compounds synthesized by the methods of the present disclosure may have the chemical formulas MH, MH₂Or M₂H₂Wherein M is a base cation and H is a hydrogen anion whose bond energy is increased or a hydrogen atom whose bond energy is increased. The compound may have the formula MH_nWherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation and H is a hydrogen anion whose bond energy is increased or a hydrogen atom whose bond energy is increased. The compound may have the formula MHX, where M is a base cation, X is one of a neutral atom (such as a halogen atom), a molecule, or a singly negatively charged anion (such as a halide anion), and H is a hydrogen anion with increased bond energy or a hydrogen atom with increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula MHX, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen anion with increased bond energy or a hydrogen atom with increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula MHX, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is an anion with two negative charges, and H is a hydrogen anion with increased bond energy or a hydrogen atom with increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula M₂HX, where M is a base cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen anion with increased bond energy or a hydrogen atom with increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula MH_nWherein n is an integer, M is a basic cation and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula M₂H_nWherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. Chemical combinationThe compound can have the formula M₂XH_nWherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula M₂X₂H_nWherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, the hydrogen content H of the compound_nIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula M₂X₃H, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen anion whose bond energy is increased or a hydrogen atom whose bond energy is increased. The compound may have the formula M₂XH_nWherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is an anion having two negative charges, the hydrogen content H of the compound_nIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula M₂XX 'H, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, X' is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen anion whose bond energy is increased or a hydrogen atom whose bond energy is increased. The compound may have the formula MM' H_nWherein n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, the hydrogen content H of the compound_nIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The compounds may have the formula MM' XH_nWherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula MM 'XH, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a two negatively charged anion and H is a hydrogen anion with increased bond energy or a hydrogen atom with increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula MM 'XX' H, wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, M 'is an alkali metal cation, X and X' are anions having a single negative charge and H is a hydrogen anion with increased bond energy or a hydrogen atom with increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula MXX' H_nWherein n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a single or two negativeA charge anion, X' is a metal or metalloid, a transition element, an internal transition element, or a rare earth element, the hydrogen content H of the compound_nIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula MH_nWherein n is an integer, M is a cation such as a transition element, internal transition element, or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula MXH_nWherein n is an integer, M is a cation such as an alkali cation, an alkaline earth cation, X is another cation such as a transition element, an internal transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound_nIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula [ KH_mKCO₃]_nWherein m and n are each an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound_mIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The compound may have the formulaWherein m and n are each integers, X is a singly negatively charged anion, the hydrogen content H of the compound_mIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula [ KHKNO₃]_nWherein n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The compound may have the formula [ KHKOH ]]_nWherein n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The anion-or cation-containing compound may have the formula [ MH_mM'X]_nWhere M and n are each integers, M and M' are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or doubly negatively charged anion, the hydrogen content H of the compound_mIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The anion-or cation-containing compound may have the formulaWherein M and n are each an integer, M and M 'are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X' are anions having a single or two negative chargesHydrogen content H of the compound_mIncluding at least one hydrogen species having an increased bond energy. The anion can include one of the anions of the present disclosure. Suitable exemplary singly negatively charged anions are halide ions, hydroxide ions, bicarbonate ions, or nitrate ions. Suitable exemplary two negatively charged anions are carbonate, oxide, or sulfate.

In embodiments, the hydrogen compound or mixture of increased bond energy includes at least one lower energy hydrogen species such as a hydrino atom, hydrino anion, a binary hydrogen molecule embedded in a lattice (such as a crystal lattice) such as a metal or ion lattice. In embodiments, the lattice does not react with lower energy hydrogen species. The substrate may be aprotic, such as in the case of embedded hydrinos. The compound or mixture may include H (1/p), H embedded in a salt lattice such as an alkali or alkaline earth salt (e.g., halide)₂(1/p), and H^-At least one of (1/p). Exemplary alkali halides are KCl and KI. In embedded H^-In the case of (1/p), the salt may not contain any H₂And O. Other suitable salt lattices include lattices of the present disclosure. Lower energy hydrogen species can be formed by the catalytic action of hydrogen with aprotic catalysts (such as those of table 1).

The compounds of the present invention are preferably simply greater than 0.1 atomic percent. More preferably, the compound is simply greater than 1 atomic percent. Even more preferably, the compound is simply greater than 10 atomic percent. Most preferably, the compound is simply greater than 50 atomic percent. In another embodiment, the compound is simply greater than 90 atomic percent. In another embodiment, the compound is simply greater than 95 atomic percent.

In another embodiment of the chemical reactor for forming hydrinos, the battery for forming hydrinos and releasing power (such as thermal power) comprises a combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine, rocket engine, or gas turbine. The reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen and a source of oxygen for generating a catalyst and hydrino. The source of catalyst may be at least one of a hydrogen-containing species and an oxygen-containing species. The species or other reaction product may be at least one of a species containing at least one of O and H (such as H)₂、H、H⁺、O₂、O₃、O、O⁺、H₂O、H₃O⁺、OH、OH⁺、OH^-、HOOH、OOH^-、O^-、O^2-、And). The catalyst may comprise oxygen or hydrogen species (such as H)₂O). In another embodiment, the catalyst comprises nH (n ═ integer), O₂OH, and H₂At least one of O catalysts. The source of hydrogen (such as a source of hydrogen atoms) may include a hydrogen-containing fuel (such as H)₂Gas or hydrocarbon). Hydrogen atoms may be generated by pyrolysis of hydrocarbons during combustion of the hydrocarbons. The reaction mixture may also include a hydrogen dissociating agent (such as a dissociating agent of the present disclosure). H atoms may also be formed by dissociation of hydrogen. The source of O may also include O in air₂. The reactants may also include H, which may serve as a source of at least one of H and O₂And O. In embodiments, water is used as H that can pass through the cell₂Other sources of at least one of hydrogen and oxygen supplied by pyrolysis of O. Water can be thermally or catalytically dissociated into hydrogen atoms on a surface, such as a cylinder or piston head. The surface may include a material for dissociating water into hydrogen and oxygen. The water-dissociating material may include an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements or internal transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated carbon (carbon), or a mixture of transition elements or internal transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, TcCs intercalated carbon (graphite). H and O may react to form a catalyst for forming hydrinos and H. The sources of hydrogen and oxygen may be drawn through corresponding ports or intake ports, such as intake valves or manifolds. The product can be discharged through a discharge or outlet. The flow rate can be controlled by controlling the rate of inlet and outlet air through each port.

In an embodiment, the hydrino is formed by heating a source of catalyst and a source of hydrogen (such as a solid fuel of the present disclosure). The heating may be at least one of thermal heating and impact heating. Through experimentation, Raman spectroscopy confirmed that hydrinos were formed by ball milling a solid fuel such as a mixture of hydroxides and halides (such as a mixture including an alkali metal such as Li). For example, observe 2308cm^-1The peak of the inverse Raman effect of the ball-milled LiOH + LiI and LiOH + LiF. Thus, suitable exemplary mixtures are LiOH + LiI or LiF. In an embodiment, at least one of heat and impingement heating is achieved by a rapid reaction. In this case, additional energetic reactions are provided by the formation of hydrinos.

Solid fuel catalyst induced fractional hydrogen conversion (SF-CIHT) cells and power converters

In an embodiment, a power system for generating at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy comprises: at least one container; reactants comprising (a) at least one source of catalyst or containing nascent H₂A catalyst for O; (b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; (c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one set of electrodes for confining the hydrino reactant; a power supply for delivering short pulses of high current electrical energy; reloading the system; at least one system for regenerating an initial reactant with a reaction product; at least one direct converter (such as at least one of a plasma-to-power converter, such as a PDC, a photovoltaic converter, and at least one thermal-to-power converter). In other embodiments, the container can have a pressure of at least one of atmospheric, superatmospheric, and subatmospheric. In embodiments, the regeneration system may include hydration, thermal, chemical, and electrochemicalAt least one of the systems. In another embodiment, the at least one direct plasma-to-electric converter may comprise a plasma-dynamic power converter,At least one of the group consisting of a direct converter, a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a magnetohydrodynamic mirror-kinetic power converter, a charge drift converter, a Post or Venetian Blind power converter, a vibratory gyroscope, a photon cluster microwave power converter, and a photoelectric converter. In other embodiments, the at least one heat-to-power converter may include at least one of the group consisting of a heat engine, a steam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine cycle engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermionic power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter.

In an embodiment, H is ignited with the release of high energy in the form of at least one of heat, plasma and electromagnetic (optical) power₂O, forming hydrinos. (ignition in this disclosure means a very high reaction rate of H to fractional hydrogen, which may be manifested as a pulse, pulse or other form of high power release). H₂O may include a fuel that may be ignited by applying a high current, such as a high current in the range of approximately 2000A to 100,000A. This may be accomplished by applying a high voltage, such as 5,000 to 100,000V, to first form a highly conductive plasma, such as an arc. Alternatively, the high current may be passed through a filter comprising H₂O, wherein the electrical conductivity of the resulting fuel, such as a solid fuel, is high. (in this disclosure, solid fuels or energetic materials are used to refer to reaction mixtures that form catalysts such as HOH and H that further react to form hydrinos. In an embodiment of the present invention, the substrate is,solid fuels having very low electrical resistance include H-containing₂O, a reaction mixture. The low resistance may be due to the conductive composition of the reaction mixture. In an embodiment, the resistance of the solid fuel is about 10^-9Ohm to 100ohm, 10^-8Ohm to 10ohm, 10^-3Ohm to 1ohm, 10^-4Ohm to 10^-1Ohm, and 10^-4Ohm to 10^-2At least one in the range of ohms. In another embodiment, the fuel having high electrical resistance comprises H with trace or micro mole percent of added compounds or materials₂And O. In the latter case, a high current may flow through the fuel, achieving ignition by causing breakdown to form a highly conductive state (such as an arc or arc plasma).

In embodiments, the reactant may comprise H₂A source of O and a conductive matrix to form at least one of a source of catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen. In other embodiments, H is included₂The reactant of the source of O may include at least one of: bulk phase H₂O except for bulk phase H₂Out of O state, subjected to formation of H₂O and liberation bound H₂A compound or compounds of at least one of the reactions of O. In addition, binding H₂O may comprise and H₂O-interactive compounds, wherein H₂O is in adsorption H₂O, bound H₂O, physical adsorption of H₂O, and hydration water. In embodiments, the reactants may include a conductor and one or more compounds or materials that undergo a released bulk phase H₂O, adsorption of H₂O, bound H₂O, physical adsorption of H₂At least one of O and hydrated water and the reaction product thereof is H₂And O. In other embodiments, nascent H₂At least one of the source of O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen may comprise (a) at least one H₂At least one of a source of O, (b) at least one source of oxygen, and (c) at least one source of hydrogen.

In another embodimentThe reactants for forming at least one of the source of catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen include at least one of: h₂O and H₂A source of O; o is₂、H₂O、HOOH、OOH^-Peroxo ion, superoxide ion, hydride, H₂A halide, an oxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound, a hydrated compound selected from the group of at least one of a halide, an oxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound; a conductive substrate. In certain embodiments, the hydroxide compound may comprise at least one of the group of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH; the oxide may comprise CuO, Cu₂O、CoO、Co₂O₃、Co₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃NiO, and Ni₂O₃At least one of the group of (a); the hydroxide may comprise Cu (OH)₂、Co(OH)₂、Co(OH)₃、Fe(OH)₂、Fe(OH)₃And Ni (OH)₂At least one of the group of (a); the oxygen-containing compound may include sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate, perbromate, and periodate, MXO₃、MXO₄(M ═ metals such as alkali metals (e.g., Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs); X ═ F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li₂O, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO₄、ZnO、MgO、CaO、MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃、NiO、FeO、Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、P₂O₃、P₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃、CoO、Co₂O₃、Co₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃、NiO、Ni₂O₃Rare earth oxide, CeO₂、La₂O₃Oxyhydroxide, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, feoooh, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and the conductive matrix may include at least one of the group of metal powder, carbon, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile.

In embodiments, the reactants may include a metal, a metal oxide thereof, and H₂Mixtures of O, wherein the metal is present with H₂The reaction of O is thermodynamically unfavorable. In other embodiments, the reactants may include a metal, a metal halide, and H₂Mixtures of O, wherein the metal is present with H₂The reaction of O is thermodynamically unfavorable. In further embodiments, the reactants may include a transition metal, an alkaline earth metal halide, and H₂Mixtures of O, wherein the metal is present with H₂The reaction of O is thermodynamically unfavorable. Also, in other embodiments, the reactants may include a conductor, a hygroscopic material, and H₂A mixture of O. In embodiments, the conductor may comprise metal powder or carbon powder, wherein the metal or carbon is mixed with H₂The reaction of O is thermodynamically unfavorable. In embodiments, the hygroscopic material may comprise lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, such as KMgCl₃·6(H₂O), ferric ammonium citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid, cellulose fibers, sugars, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, fertilizer chemicals, salt, desiccants, silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, molecular sieves, zeolites, deliquescent materials, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and deliquescent salts. In certain embodiments, the power system mayComprising a conductor, a hygroscopic material and H₂O mixture of (metal/conductor), (hygroscopic material), (H)₂O) is in the range of about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); at least one of (0.5 to 1), and (0.5 to 1). In certain embodiments, the thermodynamically unfavorable metal for the reaction with water may be at least one of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In other embodiments, H may be added₂O to regenerate the reactants.

In other embodiments, the reactants may include a metal, a metal oxide thereof, and H₂O, wherein the metal oxide is capable of undergoing H at a temperature of less than 1000 ℃₂And (4) reducing. In other embodiments, the reactant may include a material that is not readily reacted with H in the presence of mild heat₂Reduced oxides, the oxides being capable of being H at temperatures below 1000 ℃₂Metal reduced to metal, and H₂A mixture of O. In embodiments, the oxide thereof can be H at a temperature below 1000 deg.C₂The metal reduced to the metal may be at least one of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. In embodiments, are not easily heated by H₂The reduced metal oxide includes at least one of alumina, an alkaline earth oxide, and a rare earth oxide.

In embodiments, the solid fuel may comprise carbon or activated carbon and H₂O, wherein H is added₂Rehydration in the case of O regenerates the mixture. In other placesIn embodiments, the reactant may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a complex, and a compound. In embodiments, the current of the power source used to deliver short pulses of high current electrical energy is sufficiently large to cause the hydrino reactant to undergo a very high rate of hydrino-forming reaction. In an embodiment, the power source for delivering short pulses of high current electrical energy comprises at least one of: a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed voltage selected to cause a current in a range of at least one of 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 1,00,000A, 10kA to 50 kA; at 100A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²And 2000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm²DC or peak AC current density within a range of at least one of; determining a voltage by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, wherein the voltage is given by the desired current multiplied by the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample; the DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from about 0.1V to 500kV, 0.1V to 100kV, and 1V to 50kV, and the AC frequency may be in a range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10 kHz. In an embodiment, the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample is in at least one range selected from about 0.001 milli-ohms to 100 megaohms, 0.1 ohms to 1 megaohms, and 10 ohms to 1 kilo-ohms, and the conductivity of a suitable load per electrode area effective for forming hydrinos is from about 10 to^-10ohm^-1cm^-2To 10⁶ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-5ohm^-1cm^-2To 10⁶ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-4ohm^-1cm^-2To 10⁵ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-3ohm^-1cm^-2To 10⁴ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-2ohm^-1cm^-2To 10³ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-1ohm^-1cm^-2To 10²ohm^-1cm^-2And 1ohm^-1cm^-2To 10ohm^-1cm^-2At least one range selected fromAnd (5) enclosing.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel is electrically conductive. In an embodiment, the electrical resistance of a portion, pellet, or portion of the solid fuel is at about 10^-9ohm to 100ohms, 10^-8ohm to 10ohm, 10^-3ohm to 1ohm, 10^-3ohm to 10^-1ohm, and 10^-3ohm to 10^-2At least one range of ohms. In embodiments, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or formation of a high current. A hydrino catalytic reaction (such as an energetic hydrino catalytic reaction) can be initiated by a low voltage, high current flow through the electrically conductive fuel. The energy release can be very high and a shock wave can be formed. In an embodiment, the voltage is selected such that the high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixture of the current (such as high current) causing ignition is in at least one of the range of 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, 10kA to 50 kA. The current density may be at 100A/cm of fuel which may include pellets (such as pressurized pellets)²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²And 2000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm²At least one of (a) and (b). The DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from about 0.1V to 100kV V, 0.1V to 1kV, 0.1V to 100V, and 0.1V to 15V. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be from about 10^-6s to 10s, 10^-5s to 1s, 10^-4s to 0.1s, and 10^-3s to 0.01 s.

In embodiments, the solid fuel or energetic material may comprise H₂Source of O or H₂O。H₂The O mole% content can be in at least one range of about 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to 100%, 0.0001% to 100%, 0.001% to 100%, 0.01% to 100%, 0.1% to 100%, 1% to 100%, 10% to 100%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10%. In embodiments, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or formation of a high current. In an embodiment, the voltages are selected so as to be between 100A and 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, 10kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak AC current density can be 100A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²And 2000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm²Within a range of at least one of (a). In an embodiment, the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material. The resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample is in at least one range selected from about 0.001 milliohms to 100 megaohms, 0.1 ohms to 1 megaohms, and 10 ohms to 1 kiloohm. The conductivity of a suitable load per electrode area effective for forming hydrinos is from about 10^-10ohm^-1cm^-2To 10⁶ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-5ohm^-1cm^-2To 10⁶ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-4ohm^-1cm^-2To 10⁵ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-3ohm^-1cm^-2To 10⁴ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-2ohm^-1cm^-2To 10³ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-1ohm^-1cm^-2To 10²ohm^-1cm^-2And 1ohm^-1cm^-2To 10ohm^-1cm^-2At least one selected range of (a). In an embodiment, the voltage is given by the desired current multiplied by the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample. In an exemplary case where the resistance is about 1 megaohm, the voltage is low (such as<10V). Substantially pure H in which the resistance is substantially infinite₂In the exemplary case of O, the voltage applied to achieve the high current for ignition is high (such as in excess of H, such as about 5kV or more)₂Breakdown voltage of O). In an embodiment, the DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from about 0.1V to 500kV, 0.1V to 100kV, and 1V to 50 kV. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10 kHz. In an embodiment, the DC voltage is discharged, forming includes ionizing H₂Plasma of OWherein the current is underdamped and oscillates as it decays.

In embodiments, the high current pulses are achieved by discharging capacitors, such as supercapacitors, which may be at least one of connected in series and parallel to achieve the desired voltage and current, where the current may be DC or regulated with circuit elements such as transformers (such as low voltage transformers) as known to those skilled in the art. The capacitor may be charged by a power source such as a power grid, generator, fuel cell, or battery. In an embodiment, the battery supplies current. In an embodiment, the appropriate frequency, voltage, and current waveforms may be achieved by adjusting the power of the output of the capacitor or battery.

The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise a conductor or conductive matrix or support (such as a metal, carbon, or carbide) and may react to form H, for example₂O or releasable bound H₂H of one or more compounds of O (such as, for example, a compound of the present disclosure)₂O or H₂A source of O. The solid fuel may include H₂O, and H₂An O-interacting compound or material, and a conductor. H₂O may be in addition to the bulk phase H₂Out of O state (such as, for example, physisorption of H₂Adsorption or binding of O or water of hydration H₂O) is present. Alternatively, in a mixture that is highly conductive or highly conductive by application of a suitable voltage, H₂O can be used as a bulk phase H₂O is present. The solid fuel may include H₂O and materials or compounds that provide high conductivity (such as metal powders or carbon) and materials or compounds that help form H and (possibly) HOH catalysts (such as oxides of metal oxides). An exemplary solid fuel may include only R-Ni and additives (such as additives of transition metals and Al), where R-Ni hydrates Al₂O₃And Al (OH)₃To release H and HOH. Suitable exemplary solid fuels include at least one hydrogen hydroxide compound (such as, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH) and a conductive baseA substance (such as at least one of a metal powder and a carbon powder) and optionally H₂And O. The solid fuel may include at least one hydroxide (such as, for example, Cu (OH))₂、Co(OH)₂、Co(OH)₃、Fe(OH)₂And Ni (OH)₂A transition metal hydroxide of at least one of), a conductor (such as at least one of a carbon powder and a metal powder), and optionally H₂And O. The solid fuel may include at least one oxide (such as, for example, CuO, Cu)₂O、NiO、Ni₂O₃FeO and Fe₂O₃At least one of transition metal oxides of at least one of (a), such as Al (OH)₃Aluminum hydroxide of (2), a conductor (such as at least one of carbon powder and metal powder), and H₂And O. The solid fuel may comprise at least one halide (such as, for example, an alkaline earth metal halide (such as MgCl)₂) A metal halide of (b), a conductor (such as at least one of carbon powder and metal powder such as Co or Fe), and H₂And O. The solid fuel may include a solid fuel (such as a solid fuel containing at least two of hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, oxide, and halide, such as a metal halide, and at least one conductor or electrically conductive matrix) and H₂A mixture of O. The conductor may comprise at least one of a metal mesh coated with one or more of the other components of the reaction mixture comprising solid fuel, R-Ni, metal powder such as transition metal powder, Ni or Co porous metal, carbon, or carbide or other conductor, or conductive support or conductive matrix known to those skilled in the art. In an embodiment, based on H₂The at least one conductor of the solid fuel of O includes a metal such as a metal powder (such as at least one of transition metals such as Cu, Al, and Ag).

In an embodiment, the solid fuel includes carbon such as activated carbon and H₂And O. In the case of plasma formation by ignition in a vacuum or inert atmosphere, the carbon condensed with the plasma may be rehydrated after plasma-electricity generation, reconstituting the solid during the regeneration cycle. The solid fuel may include acidic, basic, or neutral H₂O and at least one of activated carbon, charcoal, soft wood charcoal, carbon treated with at least one of steam and hydrogen, and a mixture of metal powders. In embodiments, the metal in the carbon-metal mixture is at least partially free from H₂And (4) reacting. At least partially stabilized towards H₂Suitable metals for the O reaction are at least one of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. Can be prepared by rehydrating (including adding) H₂And O, regenerating the mixture.

In embodiments, the essential required reactants are a source of H, a source of O, and a good conductor matrix that allow high current to penetrate the material during ignition. The solid fuel or energetic material may be contained in a sealed container, such as a sealed metal container, such as a sealed aluminum container. The solid fuel or energetic material may be reacted by a low voltage, high current pulse such as that formed by a spot welder (such as a short pulse effected by the restriction between two copper electrodes of a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder and subjected to low voltage, high current electrical energy). The 60Hz voltage may be about 5 to 20V RMS and the current may be about 10,000 to 40,000A/cm²。

Exemplary energetic materials and conditions are coated as a slurry on a Ni mesh screen and dried and then subjected to about 60Hz, 8V RMS, and 40,000A/cm²TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, SmOOH, Ni of the electrical pulse of (1)₂O₃.H₂O、La₂O₃.H₂O and Na₂SO₄.H₂At least one of O.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises H₂O and for the formation of nascent H₂O and H, and a dispersant and a dissociating agent. Suitable exemplary dispersing and dissociating agents are, for example, metal halides (such as, for example, bromides (such as, for example, FeBr)₂) Of transition metal halide) of a metal halideForming compounds such as CuBr₂And compounds such as oxides and halides of metals capable of multiple oxidation states. Others include oxides, hydroxides, or hydroxides (such as, for example, CoO, Co)₂O₃、Co₃O₄、CoOOH、Co(OH)₂、Co(OH)₃、NiO、Ni₂O₃、NiOOH、Ni(OH)₂、FeO、Fe₂O₃、FeOOH、Fe(OH)₃、CuO、Cu₂O, CuOOH and Cu (OH)₂An oxide, hydroxide, or hydroxide of the transition element(s). In other embodiments, the transition metal is substituted with another metal such as alkali, alkaline earth, internal transition, and rare earth metals, and group 13 and 14 metals. A suitable example is La₂O₃、CeO₂And LaX₃(X ═ halide). In another embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises H as a hydrate of an inorganic compound (such as an oxide, hydroxide, or halide)₂And O. Other suitable hydrates are metal compounds of the present disclosure (such as at least one of the group of sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, chromates, pyrophosphates, persulfates, hypochlorites, chlorites, chlorates, perchlorates, hypobromites, bromates, perchlorates, hypoiodites, iodates, periodates, hydrogen sulfates, hydrogen phosphates, or dihydrogen phosphates, other metal compounds with cations, and metal halides). The molar ratio of dispersant to dissociating agent (such as a metal oxide or halide compound) is any desired molar ratio that causes an ignition event. Moles of at least one compound with H₂Suitable ratios of moles of O are in at least one range of about 0.000001 to 100000, 0.00001 to 10000, 0.0001 to 1000, 0.01 to 100, 0.1 to 10, and 0.5 to 1, where the ratio is defined as (moles of compound/H)₂Moles of O). The solid fuel or energetic material may also include a conductor or conductive matrix (such as metal powders, such as transition metal powders, Ni or Co porous, for example) known to those skilled in the artAt least one of a metal, carbon powder, or carbide or other conductor, or a conductive support or conductive matrix). Containing at least one compound and H₂A suitable ratio of the number of moles of hydrated compound of O to the number of moles of conductor is in at least one range of about 0.000001 to 100000, 0.00001 to 10000, 0.0001 to 1000, 0.01 to 100, 0.1 to 10, and 0.5 to 1, where the ratio is defined as (number of moles of hydrated compound/number of moles of conductor).

In an embodiment, by adding H₂O regenerates the reactants with the product. In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises H₂O and an electrically conductive matrix adapted to flow a low voltage, high current of the present disclosure through the hydrated material to cause ignition. The conductive matrix material may be at least one of a metal surface, a metal powder, carbon, a carbon powder, a carbide, a boride, a nitride, a carbonitrile such as TiCN, a nitrile, the present disclosure, or another known to those skilled in the art. Addition of H₂O to form a solid fuel or energetic material or to regenerate it with product may be continuous or intermittent.

The solid fuel or energetic material may include a conductive matrix, an oxide (such as a mixture of a metal (such as a metal selected from Fe, Cu, Ni, or Co) and a corresponding metal oxide) such as at least one of a transition metal and an oxide thereof, and H₂A mixture of O. H₂O may be in the form of a hydrated oxide. In other embodiments, the metal/metal oxide reactant comprises H corresponding to an oxide that can be readily reduced to a metal₂A metal having a low reactivity of O, or the metal is not oxidized during the hydrino reaction. Has a low H₂Suitable exemplary metals for O reactivity are metals selected from Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr. The metal may be converted to an oxide during the reaction. The oxide product corresponding to the metal reactant can be regenerated to the initial metal by hydrogen reaction by systems and methods known to those skilled in the art. The hydrogen reduction can be carried out at elevated temperatureAnd (6) originally. Can be produced by electrolysis of H₂O to supply hydrogen. In another embodiment, the metal is regenerated with an oxide by carbon reduction, reduction with a reducing species such as a more oxygen active metal, or by electrolysis (electrolysis in molten salts). Forming the metal can be accomplished with oxides by systems and methods known to those skilled in the art. Metals and metal oxides and H₂The molar amount of O is any desired molar amount that results in ignition when subjected to a low voltage, high current electrical pulse as given in this disclosure. (Metal), (Metal oxide), (H)₂O) is about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); at least one of (0.5 to 1), and (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

The solid fuel or energetic material may include a conductive matrix, a halide (such as a mixture of a first metal and a corresponding first metal halide or second metal halide), and H₂A mixture of O. H₂O may be in the form of a hydrated halide. The second metal halide may be more stable than the first metal halide. In embodiments, the first metal is associated with H corresponding to an oxide that can be readily reduced to the metal₂The reaction rate of O is low or the metal is not oxidized during the hydrino reaction. Has a low H₂Suitable exemplary metals for O reactivity are metals selected from Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr. Metals and metal halides and H₂The molar amount of O is any desired molar amount that results in ignition when subjected to a low voltage, high current electrical pulse as given in this disclosure. (metal), (metal halide), (H)₂O) is suitably largeAbout (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); at least one of (0.5 to 1), and (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

In embodiments, the solid fuel or energetic material may include a conductor (such as a conductor of the present disclosure such as a metal or carbon), a hydrophilic material, and H₂And O. Suitable exemplary hydrophilic materials are lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, such as KMgCl₃·6(H₂O), ammonium ferric citrate, potassium and sodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acid, cellulosic fibers (such as cotton and paper), sugars, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, many fertilizer chemicals, salts (including common salt), and a wide variety of other substances known to those skilled in the art as well as debonding agents (such as silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, and molecular sieves (typically zeolites) or deliquescent materials (such as zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide), and many different deliquescent salts known to those skilled in the art. (metal), (hydrophilic material), (H)₂O) is about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); at least one of (0.5 to 1), and (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

In an exemplary energetic material, the material is sealed in an aluminum DSC pan(aluminum crucible 30 μ l, D: 6.7 × 3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6, 7, pressed, unsealed (Setaram, S08/HBB37409)) and 20mg Co ignited using Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder at a current of between 15,000 and 25,000A at about 8V RMS₃O₄Or 0.05ml (50mg) of H was added to CuO₂Another exemplary solid fuel that was ignited in the same manner as similar results includes Cu (42.6mg) + CuO (14.2mg) + H) sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (71.1mg) (aluminum crucible 30 μ l, D: 6.7 × 3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6, 7, pressed, unsealed (Setaram, S08/HBB37409))₂O(16.3mg)。

In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises nascent H₂A source of O catalyst and a source of H. In embodiments, the solid fuel or energetic material is electrically conductive or comprises a material that causes nascent H₂The mixture of the source of O catalyst and the source of H conducts the electrically conductive matrix material. Newborn H₂The source of at least one of the source of the O catalyst and the source of H is a compound or a mixture of compounds and a material containing at least O and H. The O-containing compound or material may be at least one of an oxide, a hydroxide, and a hydroxide compound, such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition metal, internal transition metal, rare earth metal, and group 13 and 14 metal oxides, hydroxides, and hydroxide compounds. The O-containing compound or material may be a sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate, perbromate, periodate, MXO₃、MXO₄(M ═ metals such as alkali metals (e.g., Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs); X ═ F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li₂O, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO₄、ZnO、MgO、CaO、MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃、NiO、FeO、Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、P₂O₃、P₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃Such as CeO₂Or La₂O₃Such as TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH. An exemplary source of H is H₂O, having bound or adsorbed H₂A compound of O (such as a hydrate, a hydroxide compound, or a hydrogen sulfate salt, a hydrogen phosphate salt or a dihydrogen phosphate salt, and a hydrocarbon compound). The conductive matrix material may be at least one of a metal powder, carbon powder, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile. In different embodiments, the conductors of the present disclosure may be in different physical forms (such as blocks, particles, powders, nanopowders, other forms known to those skilled in the art) that render the solid fuel or energetic material comprising the mixture with the conductors electrically conductive.

Exemplary solid fuels or energetic materials include H₂O and a conductive matrix. In an exemplary embodiment, the solid fuel comprises H₂O and metal conductors, such as transition metals, such as Fe in the form of metal powder conductors and Fe compounds (such as iron hydroxides, iron oxides, iron oxyhydroxides, and iron halides), wherein the latter can serve as H₂Hydrates of sources of O in place of H₂And O. Other metals may be substituted for Fe, in any of their physical forms (such as metals and compounds) and states (such as blocks, sheets, screens, meshes, wires, particles, powders, nanopowders and solids, liquids and gases). The conductor may include one or more of carbon in physical form (such as bulk carbon, particulate carbon, carbon powder, carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, activated carbon, graphite, carbon nanotubes,at least one of KOH activated carbon or nanotubes, carbide derived carbon, carbon cloth, and fullerenes). An exemplary suitable solid fuel or energetic material is CuBr₂+H₂An O + conductive matrix; cu (OH)₂+FeBr₂+ a conductive matrix material (such as carbon or metal powder); FeOOH + conductive matrix materials (such as carbon or metal powders); cu (oh) Br + conductive matrix material (such as carbon or metal powder); AlOOH or Al (OH) ₃+ Al powder (where H added is supplied to the reaction₂By Al with by AlOOH or Al (OH)₃Is decomposed to form H₂O reacts to form hydrinos); h in conductive nanoparticles (such as carbon nanotubes and fullerenes) that can be activated by vapor₂O and H in metallated zeolites₂O (where a dispersant may be used to wet a hydrophilic material such as carbon); NH (NH)₄NO₃+H₂O + NiAl alloy powder; LiNH₂+LiNO₃+ Ti powder; LiNH₂+LiNO₃+Pt/Ti；LiNH₂+NH₄NO₃+ Ti powder; BH₃NH₃+NH₄NO₃；BH₃NH₃+CO₂、SO₂、NO₂And nitrates, carbonates, sulfates; LiH + NH₄NO₃+ a transition metal, rare earth metal, Al or other oxidizable metal; NH (NH)₄NO₃+ a transition metal, rare earth metal, Al or other oxidizable metal; NH (NH)₄NO₃+ R-Ni; hydroxides, LiNO having the present disclosure₃、LiClO₄And S₂O₈P of each of₂O₅+ a conductive substrate; sources of H such as hydroxides, hydrogen storage materials (such as one or more of the present disclosure), diesel fuel, and hydrogen such as P₂O₅Can also act as electron acceptors and as CO₂、CO₂Or NO₂Can also be used as a source of oxygen for other anhydrides.

The solid fuel or energetic material used to form the hydrinos may include at least one highly reactive or energetic material (such as NH₄NO₃Tritonal, RDX, PETN, andothers of the present disclosure). The solid fuel or energetic material may additionally include a conductor, a conductive matrix, or a conductive material (such as metal powder, carbon powder, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile), a hydrocarbon (such as diesel fuel, hydroxide, oxide, and H₂O). In an exemplary embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a highly reactive or energetic material (such as NH)₄NO₃Tritonal, RDX, PETN), and a conductive matrix (such as a metal powder such as Al or at least one of a transition metal powder and a carbon powder). The solid fuel or energetic material may react with a high current as given in this disclosure. In embodiments, the solid fuel or energetic material further comprises a photosensitizer (such as glass microspheres).

A. Plasma Dynamics Converter (PDC)

The mass of positively charged ions of the plasma is at least 1800 times the mass of electrons; thus, the convoluted track is 1800 times larger. This results in allowing electrons to be magnetically trapped by the magnetic field lines, and ions to drift. Charge separation may occur to provide a voltage to the plasma dynamics converter.

B. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter

Charge separation based on the formation of ion mass flow in a cross-field is a well-known technique for Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power conversion. The positive and negative ions undergo Lorentzian direction in opposite directions and are received at the corresponding MHD electrodes, affecting the voltage therebetween. A typical MHD method for forming a mass stream of ions is to expand a high pressure gas seeded with ions through a nozzle to form a high velocity stream through a crossed magnetic field with a set of MHD electrodes crossed relative to the deflection field used to receive the deflected ions. In the present disclosure, the pressure is typically, but not necessarily, greater than atmospheric pressure, and a directed mass flow may be achieved by reaction of the solid fuel to form a highly ionized radially expanding plasma.

C. Electromagnetic field guidance (cross)A cross-field or drift) converter, guide converter

Spatially separated separations and collections using guided central drift of charged particles in magnetic and crossed fieldsThe charge at the electrode. Because the device extracts particle energy perpendicular to the guiding field, plasma expansion may not be necessary. Idealized ofThe performance of the converter depends on the inertial difference between the ions and electrons, which is the charge separation and subtend with respect to the cross-field directionThe source of voltage generation at the electrode. May also be independent of or in combination withUsed in combination with collectionAnd (4) drift collection.

D. Charge drift converter

Timofev and Glaglovel [ A.V.Timofev, "A scheme for direct conversion of plasma thermal energy internal electrical energy", Sov.J.plasma Phys., Vol.IV, 7-8 months 1978, p.464-468; glaglov and A.V.Timofev, "Direct Conversion of thermal internal electrical energy adrakon system", Plasma Phys. Rep., Vol.19, No. 12, 1993, p.745-749 ] relies on charge injection to drift separation of positive ions for power extraction from the Plasma. The charge drift converter comprises a magnetic field gradient in a direction transverse to the direction of the source of magnetic flux B and the source of magnetic flux B having the curvature of the magnetic field lines. In both cases, the drifting negatively and positively charged ions move in opposite directions perpendicular to the plane formed by B and in the direction of the magnetic field gradient or plane in which B has curvature. In each case, the separated ions create a voltage across the opposing capacitor, which is parallel to the plane that accompanies the reduction in thermal energy of the ions. Electrons are received on one charge drift converter electrode and positive ions are received on the other. Since the mobility of ions is much smaller than the mobility of electrons, electron injection can be performed directly or by evaporating them from the warmed up charge drift converter electrodes. The power loss is small and the cost of power balance is not large.

E. Magnetic confinement

Consider that an explosion or light-off event is when the catalyst used to form the hydrino H accelerates to a very high rate. In an embodiment, the plasma generated by the explosion or ignition event is an expanding plasma. In this case, Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) is a suitable conversion system and method. Alternatively, in an embodiment, the plasma is confined. In this case, a plasma-dynamic converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, an electromagnetic guide (cross-field or drift) converter, a magnetic field generator, a,The conversion is effected by at least one of a direct converter, and a charge-drift converter. In this case, the power generation system includes a plasma confinement system in addition to the SF-CIHT cell and equipment balance including ignition, reloading, regeneration, fuel handling and plasma-electric power conversion systems. The confinement may be achieved with a magnetic field, such as a solenoidal magnetic field. The magnet may comprise at least one of a permanent magnet and an electromagnet (such as at least one of uncooled, water cooled, and superconducting magnet), the corresponding cryogenic management system comprises at least one of a liquid helium dewar, a liquid nitrogen dewar, a radiation shield, which may comprise copper, a high vacuum insulation radiation shield, a metallic material, or a combination thereof,And a cold pump and compressor that can be powered by the power output of the hydrino-based generator. The magnets may be open coils such as Helmholtz coils (Helmholtz coils). The plasma may also be confined in the magnet bottle by other systems and methods known to those skilled in the art.

Two or more magnetic mirrors may form a magnetic bottle, confining the plasma formed by the catalytic action of H for forming a fraction of hydrogen. The present application, such as "Microwave Power Cell, Chemical Reactor, And And Power Converter" (PCT/US 02/06955 (short version) filed 3.3.7.02, PCT/US02/06945 (long version) filed 3.3.7.02, And US part No. 10/469,913 filed 9.9.5.03, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, sets forth the theory of confinement Flow between an anode and a cathode, such as a containment vessel wall that collects positrons. Power may be dissipated in external loads.

F. Solid fuel catalyst induced hydrino conversion (SF-CIHT) cell

The chemical reactants of the present invention may be referred to as solid fuels or energetic materials or both. The solid fuel can be implemented such that when conditions are created and maintained to cause very high reaction kinetics for forming hydrinos, energetic materials are included. In embodiments, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or formation of a high current. In an embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell, the reactants used to form the hydrinos are subjected to low voltage, high current, high power pulses that result in very rapid reaction rates and energy release. The rate may be sufficient to form a punchAnd (5) shocking. In an exemplary embodiment, the 60Hz voltage is less than 15V peak and the current is at 10,000A/cm²And 50,000A/cm²Between peaks, power was 150,000W/cm²And 750,000W/cm²In the meantime. Other frequencies, voltages, currents and powers in the range of about 1/100 times to 100 times these parameters are suitable. In embodiments, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or formation of a high current. In an embodiment, the voltage is selected such that a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixture of currents in a range of at least one of 100A to1,000,000A, 1kA to1, 00,000A, 10kA to 50kA is obtained. The DC or peak AC current density can be 100A/cm²To1,000,000A/cm²、1000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²And 2000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm²Within a range of at least one of (a). The DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from about 0.1V to 1000kV, 0.1V to 100V, 0.1V to 15V, and 1V to 15V. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1Hz to10 GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to10 kHz. The pulse time may be selected from about 10^-6s to10 s, 10^-5s to 1s, 10^-4s to 0.1s, and 10^-3s to 0.01 s.

During H catalysis for the formation of hydrinos, electrons are ionized with the HOH catalyst by energy transferred from the H catalyzed into HOH. The step of catalysis is (1) the reaction of atomic hydrogen with an energy acceptor called a catalyst, where energy is transferred from the atomic hydrogen to the catalyst which forms positive ions and ionized electrons as a result of accepting the energy; (2) the negative electron of H then drops to a lower atomic shell closer to the positive proton to form smaller hydrogen atoms, hydrinos, thereby releasing energy to generate electricity or heat according to the design of the system; (3) the positive ions of the catalyst recapture their lost electrons to reform the catalyst for another cycle, releasing the initial energy accepted from H (atomic hydrogen). The high current of SF-CIHT cells leads to a catastrophically high reaction rate against the limiting effect of charge accumulation in the catalyst that loses its electrons. These electrons (step 2) can be turned on in the high circuit current applied to prevent the catalytic reaction from self-limiting due to charge accumulation. The high current also causes an excited conversion or excited series of electrons, wherein one or more of the current electrons increases the rate at which hydrogen (H) atomic electrons undergo conversion for forming hydrinos. High currents can cause catastrophic decay or a catastrophic hydrino reaction rate. The plasma power formed from the hydrinos can be converted directly into electricity.

The explosion is generated by fast kinetics, which in turn causes a large number of electrons to ionize. In an embodiment, at least one dedicated plasma-to-electron converter (such as MHD, PDC andat least one of the direct converters) converts the plasma power from the ignition of the solid fuel into electrical power. Details of these and other Plasma-to-electric Power converters are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety (such as the present publications of R.M.Mayo, R.L.Mills, M.Nansteel, "Direct Plasma adynamic Conversion of Plasma Thermal Power electric conductivity", IEEE Transactions On Plasma Science, 2002, 10, 5, 30, 2066, 2073, R.M.Mayo, R.L.Mills, M.Nansteel, "On the Power of Direct and DConversion of Power from Mill non Plasma Power electric conductivity for distributed Power Applications", IEEE Transactions On Plasma Science, 8, 2002, 30, 1578, 3, the present publications of Plasma Power Conversion, such as the present publications of Plasma Power application, 3, R.M.M.Mayo, R.L.Mills, M.Nansteel, "On the Power of Direct and DConversion of Power, 2002, 30, 1578, 3, 1578, 2002, 1578, the present publications of Plasma Power Conversion, and application, 3, the present publications of Plasma Conversion, 3, the present publications of the present application, 3, 2,3, the present publications of the present application, 3, the present application, the present publication of" find (incorporated by reference, the present application, the present publication of the present application, the present publication of (incorporated by reference, the present publication of the present application, the present Power Cell, Chemical Reactor, AndPower Converter ", PCT/US02/06955 (short version) filed 3, month 7, 02, PCT/US02/06945 (long version) filed 3, month 7, 02, US part number 10/469,913 filed 9, month 5, 03; plasma ReaThe vector and Process For Producing Tower-Energy Hydrogen specifices, PCT/US04/010608, 8/4/04, US/10/552,585, 12/10/15; "Hydrogen Power, Plasma, and Reactor for sizing, and Power Conversion", PCT/US02/35872, 11/8/02/5/6/04/5/10/494,571 ("Mills Current Plasma Power Conversion publications")).

The energy of the plasma converted into electricity is dissipated in an external circuit. As demonstrated experimentally by calculations in the Mills prior plasma power conversion publication, over 50% of the plasma energy-to-power conversion can be achieved. Heat as well as plasma is generated by each SF-CIHT cell. The heat may be used directly or may be converted to mechanical or electrical power using converters known to those skilled in the art, such as heat engines such as steam or gas turbines and generators, Rankine or Brayton cycle engines, or Stirling engines. With respect to power conversion, each SF-CIHT cell may interact with any of the thermal or plasma-mechanical or electrical power converters described in Mill's prior publications, as well as converters known to those skilled in the art (such as heat engines, steam or gas turbine systems, Stirling engines, or thermionic or thermoelectric converters). Other plasma converters include the plasma-dynamic power converters disclosed in Mills prior publications,At least one of a direct converter, a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a magnetomirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a charge drift converter, a Post or Venetial Blind power converter, a gyrotron, a photon bunching microwave power converter, and a photoelectric converter. In an embodiment, the battery comprises at least one cylinder of an internal combustion engine as set forth in the Mills prior thermal power conversion publications, the Mills prior plasma power conversion publications, and the Mills prior applications.

Solid fuel induced fractional hydrogen transfer (SF-CIHT) cell shown in FIG. 1The electrical machine comprises at least one SF-CIHT cell 1 having a structural support frame 1a, the SF-CIHT cells 1 each having at least two electrodes 2 and a power source 4, the electrodes 2 bounding a sample, pellet, portion, or portion of solid fuel 3, the power source 4 for delivering short pulses of low voltage, high current electrical energy through the fuel 3. The current ignites the fuel, releasing energy due to the formation of hydrinos. The power is in the form of thermal power and highly ionized plasma of the fuel 3 that can be directly converted into electricity. (herein, "igniting or forming an explosion" means that high hydrino reaction kinetics are created due to the high current applied to the fuel.) the plasma can be seeded to increase conduction or the duration of conduction. In embodiments, such as an element or compound (such as an alkali metal or such as K)₂CO₃Alkali metal compound of (a) may be added to at least one of the solid fuel and the plasma to seed it with charged ions. In an embodiment, the plasma includes an ion-seeding source (such as an alkali metal or alkali metal compound that remains conductive when the plasma cools). Exemplary power sources for achieving ignition of the solid fuel TO form the plasma are the Taylor-Winfield Model ND-24-75 spot welder and the EM Test Model CSS 500N10Current SURGE GENERATOR (8/20US UP TO10 KA). In an embodiment, the power source 4 is DC, and the plasma-to-electric power converter is adapted for a DC magnetic field. Suitable converters for operation with a DC magnetic field are magnetohydrodynamics, plasma dynamics anda power converter.

In an embodiment, an exemplary solid fuel mixture includes a transition metal powder, an oxide thereof, and H₂And O. Fine powder may be pneumatically injected into the gap formed between the electrodes 2 when the electrodes 2 are opened. In another embodiment, the fuel comprises at least one of a powder and a slurry. Fuel may be injected into the desired area, confined between the electrodes 2, ignited by a high current. In order to better confine the powder, the electrode 2 may have a male-female pair of laps forming a chamber containing the fuel. In an embodiment, the fuel isThe fuel and electrodes 2 may be oppositely electrostatically charged such that fuel flows into the inter-electrode region and electrostatically adheres to the desired region of each electrode 2 in which the fuel is ignited.

In the embodiment of the power generator shown in fig. 1, the electrode surface 2 may be parallel to the gravitational axis and the solid fuel powder 3 may flow out of the overhead hopper 5 under the force of gravity as an intermittent flow with the time of the intermittent flow matching the size of the electrode 2 as the electrode 2 is opened to receive the flowing powdered fuel 3 and closed to ignite the fuel fluid. In another embodiment, the electrode 2 further comprises rollers 2a at its ends, the rollers 2a being separated by a small gap in which the fuel flow is filled. The conductive fuel 3 completes the electrical circuit between the electrodes 2 and the fuel is ignited by the high current flow of the fuel. The fuel fluid 3 may be intermittent to prevent the expanding plasma from disrupting the fuel fluid flow.

In another embodiment, the electrode 2 comprises a set of gears 2a supported by a structural element 2 b. The set of gears is rotatable by a drive gear 2c, the drive gear 2c being powered by a drive gear motor 2 d. The transmission gear 2c may also serve as a heat sink for each gear 2a, wherein heat may be removed by an electrode heat exchanger (such as 10) that receives heat from the transmission gear 2 c. The gears 2a, such as herringbone gears, each include an integer number (n) of teeth, wherein fuel flows into the nth inter-tooth gap or tooth slot floor when the fuel in the nth-1 inter-tooth gap is compressed by the nth-1 tooth of the mating gear. Other geometries of gears or functions of gears, such as interdigitated polygonal or triangular toothed gears, helical gears and augers known to those skilled in the art, are within the scope of the present disclosure. In an embodiment, the fuel and the desired area of the gear teeth of the electrode 2a (such as the tooth space bottom) may be oppositely electrostatically charged, such that when the teeth mesh the fuel flows into and electrostatically adheres to the desired area of one or both electrodes 2a in which the fuel is ignited. In the embodiment, the fuel 3 such as fine powder is pneumatically injected into a desired region of the gear 2 a. In another embodiment, the fuel 3 is injected into a desired area confined between the electrodes 2a (such as an interdigitated area of the teeth of the gear 2a) to be ignited by a high current. In an embodiment, the rollers or gears 2a are held in tension towards each other by means such as spring loading or pneumatic or hydraulic actuation. The meshing and compression of the teeth causes electrical contact to be made between the mating teeth by the conductive fuel. In an embodiment, the gears are electrically conductive in the interdigitated regions that contact the fuel during meshing and are insulated in other regions so that current selectively flows through the fuel. In an embodiment, the gear 2a comprises a ceramic gear, with a metal coating, electrically conductive or electrically isolated in the interdigitated area without a grounding path. In addition, the transmission gear 2c may be non-conductive or electrically isolated without a ground path. Electrical contact and supply from the electrode 2 to the interdigitated parts of the teeth may be provided by brushes. An exemplary brush includes a carbon bar or rod that is urged into contact with the gear under the action of, for example, a spring.

In another embodiment, the electrical contact and supply from the electrodes 2 to the interdigitated portions of the teeth may be provided directly through the corresponding gear hub and bearings. The structural element 2b may comprise an electrode 2. As shown in fig. 1, each electrode 2 of the pair of electrodes may be centered on and connected to the center of each gear, serving both as a structural element 2b and as an electrode 2, wherein the gear bearings connecting each gear 2a to its shaft or hub serve as electrical contacts and only a grounding path exists between the contacting teeth of the opposing gears. In an embodiment, the outer portion of each gear is rotated about its central hub to have a greater electrical contact at its larger radius through an additional bearing. The hub may also act as a large heat sink. The electrode heat exchanger 10 may also be attached to a hub to carry heat away from the gears. The heat exchanger 10 may be electrically isolated from the hub with a thin insulator layer (such as an electrical insulator) having high thermal conductivity, such as a diamond or diamond-like carbon film. The electrification of the gear can be timed using a computer and a switching transistor, such as those used in a brushless type DC motor. In an embodiment, the gear is intermittently supplied with energy, such that when the gear is engaged, a high current flows through the fuel. The fuel flow may be timed to match the fuel transfer to the gear when the gear is engaged and cause current to flow through the fuel. The consequent high current flow causes the fuel to ignite. The fuel may flow continuously through the gear or roller 2a, the gear or roller 2a rotating to drive the fuel through the gap. The fuel may be continuously ignited as it rotates to fill the space between the electrodes 2, including the meshing area of a set of rollers or the opposing sides of a set of rollers. In this case, the output power may be stable. In an embodiment, the resulting plasma expands beyond the sides of the gear and flows towards the plasma towards the power converter 6. The plasma expansion flow may be along an axis parallel to the axis of each gear and transverse to the direction of flow of the fuel fluid 3. The axial flow may be towards the PDC converter 6 or the MHD converter as shown in fig. 1. Other directional flows may be achieved with confining magnets such as Helmholtz coils or magnetic bottles 6 d.

The electrodes may be at least one of continuously or intermittently regenerated with the components of the solid fuel 3 through the metal. The solid fuel may comprise a metal (such as a metal that is eroded or abraded during operation) that melts during ignition such that adhesion, fusion, welding, or alloying with the surface occurs to replace the form of the electrode 2a material. The SF-CIHT battery power generator may also include means for restoring the shape of the electrodes (such as the teeth of the gear 2 a). The apparatus may include at least one of a casting mold, a grinding mill, and a milling machine. Gear erosion can be continuously repaired during operation. The gear electrode of the SF-CIHT cell may be continuously repaired by Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) or by electroplating (by means such as EDM electroplating). Systems and methods for continuous refreshing of gears during operations performed in vacuum, such as cold spray, thermal spray, or sputtering, are known to those skilled in the art.

In an embodiment, the interdigitated gears are designed to capture excess solid fuel (such as highly conductive solid fuel powder). The gear region (such as the tooth slot bottom of each tooth and the corresponding mating gear) has at least one of a geometric design and a selective energization such that only a portion of the excess fuel detonates. The selected portion may be free of contact with the gear surface by the unselected un-detonated fuel. The volumetric shape of the fuel in the interdigitated region may be such that the selected smaller volume has a high current sufficient to allow detonation; however, the surrounding larger volume through which the current can pass has a lower current density than that required for detonation. In an embodiment, the captured excess fuel conducts current through a larger area or volume of fuel and is concentrated into a smaller area or volume, wherein a current threshold for detonation is exceeded and detonation occurs in a selected portion of the fuel having a higher current density. In an embodiment, the selective fuel portion has a lower resistance relative to the non-selected portion due to the geometric design and selective energization that determines the length of the current path through some portion of the fuel. In an embodiment, the geometry of the gears causes the selected region to have a higher compression of fuel than the unselected region, such that in the selected region, the electrical resistance is lower. The current density in the selected region is therefore high, exceeding the detonation threshold. In contrast, the resistance in the unselected areas is higher. Thus, the current density in the unselected areas is lower, below the detonation threshold. In an exemplary embodiment, the selected region includes a pinch point of the hourglass-shaped portion of the fuel.

The ambient excess non-detonated fuel absorbs at least some of the conditions that would otherwise cause corrosion of the gears if directly exposed to conditions lacking the intervening solid fuel that is not detonated. These conditions may include bombardment or exposure to at least one of high heat, high pressure (such as high pressure due to a shock wave or blast front overpressure), projectiles, plasma, electrons, and ions. The non-detonated fuel may be connected and recycled by a fuel recovery system. With respect to fig. 1 and 2, the fuel recovery and recirculation system may include a steam condenser 15, a chute 6a, a product remover/fuel loader 13, a regeneration system 14, and a holding tank 5.

In another embodiment, the gears can be moved by a fastening mechanism (such as a reciprocating connecting rod) and caused to be actuated by a crankshaft, similar to the systems and methods of piston systems of internal combustion engines. As the counter electrode portion of the gear rotates into the counter-engagement position, the counter electrodes are driven together under compression and move apart upon ignition by the fastening mechanism. The counter electrode may be of any desired shape and may be selectively energized to cause at least one of the fuels to experience greater compression in the selected region and greater current density in the selected region. The counter electrode may form a hemispherical shell that compresses the fuel to maximize compression at the center. The highest current density may also be in the center to selectively achieve a detonation threshold in the center region. The expanding plasma may flow out of the open portion of the hemispherical shell. In another embodiment, the counter electrode may form an hourglass shape, wherein the selected region may comprise a wrist or neck portion of the hourglass.

In an embodiment, the gear may comprise at least two materials, wherein at least one material is a conductor. The at least one hardened material may be used for corrosion resistance purposes when exposed to explosive conditions, wherein the explosion may occur in contact with or in close proximity to the hardened material. The highly conductive material may isolate the explosion by the non-detonating solid fuel. The arrangement of the at least two types of materials provides at least one of selective compression and selective electrification of the selected regions over the non-selected regions. In an exemplary embodiment, the fingers of the gear form an hourglass or clamped shape. The neck or waist of the hourglass may be formed by a highly stable or hardened material, which may be an insulator such as a ceramic. The non-wrist or ball portion of the gear may include a conductor such as a metal (such as at least one of a transition, an internal transition, a rare earth, a group 13, a group 14, and a group 15 metal, or at least two such metals, or an alloy of tungsten carbide such as TiC or WC). The waist portion may compress selected regions and current may pass between non-waist or bulbous regions, concentrating in the waist region. Thereby, the current density in the selected region including the waist is increased such that the detonation threshold is achieved. The waist is protected from damage from an explosion by making the waist material comprising a hardened material resistant to corrosion. Non-waist or bulbous regions comprising conductors contact non-selected fuel regions, wherein fuel interposed between the explosion and the corresponding gear surfaces protects the surfaces from corrosion due to the explosion.

The ignition power supply 4, which may also be used as a starting power source, comprises at least one capacitor (such as a low-voltage, high-capacitance capacitor bank supplying the low-voltage, high-current necessary to achieve ignition). The capacitor circuit may be designed to avoid ripple or ringing during discharge to increase the lifetime of the capacitor. The lifetime may be long (such as in the range of about 1 to 20 years). The capacitor bank power supply may include circuitry that avoids skin effects during discharge that would impede current penetration into the bulk of the solid fuel. The power circuit may include an LRC circuit for capacitor discharge to ignite the solid fuel, wherein the time constant is long enough to prevent high frequency oscillations or pulsed discharges including high frequency components that prevent current flow through the sample from igniting it.

To suppress any pauses, some power may be stored in the capacitor and optionally a high current transformer, battery, or other energy storage device. In another embodiment, the electrical output from one cell may deliver short pulses of low voltage, high current electrical energy that ignite the fuel of another cell. The output electric power can also be regulated by an output power regulator 7 connected with power connectors 8and 8 a. The output power regulator 7 may include elements such as a power storage, such as a battery or a super capacitor, a DC-to-AC (DC/AC) converter or inverter, and a transformer. The DC power may be converted to another form of DC power (such as DC power having a higher voltage); the power may be converted to AC, or a mixture of DC and AC. The output power may be power that is regulated to a desired waveform (such as 60Hz AC power) and supplied to the load through output terminals 9. In an embodiment, the output power regulator 7 converts the power from the photovoltaic converter or the thermo-electric converter to a desired frequency and waveform (such as an AC frequency other than 60 or 50Hz, which is the us and european standards, respectively). Different frequencies may be applied to match loads such as motors designed for different frequencies, such as motors for power, aviation, marine, electrical, tool, and mechanical, electrical heating and space conditioning, telecommunications, and electronic applications. A portion of the output power at the power output terminal 9 may be used to power the power supply 4 (such as approximately 5-10V, 10,000-. The PDC power converter may output DC power at a low voltage, high current well suited to re-energize the electrodes 2 to cause ignition of the subsequently supplied fuel. A low voltage, high current output may be supplied to the DC load. DC may be regulated with a DC/DC converter. Exemplary DC loads include DC motors such as electronically commutated motors (e.g., electronically commutated motors for power, aviation, marine, appliance, tool, and machinery, DC electrical heating and space conditioning, DC telecommunications, and DC electronics applications).

The ignition generates an output plasma and thermal power. The plasma power may be converted directly into electricity by the photovoltaic power converter 6. The battery is operable to vent to atmosphere. In an embodiment, the battery 1 is capable of maintaining a vacuum or pressure below atmospheric. The vacuum or pressure below atmospheric may be maintained by the vacuum pump 13a to allow ions of the ignited expanding plasma of the solid fuel 3 to not collide with atmospheric gases. In an embodiment, a sub-atmospheric vacuum or pressure is maintained in the system comprising the plasma-generating cell 1 and the connected photovoltaic converter 6.

The thermal power may be extracted by at least one of the electrode heat exchanger 10 through which the coolant flows through the electrode coolant inlet line 11 and the electrode coolant window line 12, and the PDC heat exchanger 18 through which the coolant flows through the PDC coolant inlet line 19 and the PDC coolant outlet line 20. Other heat exchangers may be used to receive thermal power from the hydrino reaction (such as a water-wall type design that may also be applied to at least one wall of the vessel 1, at least one other wall of the PDC converter, and the back of the electrode 17 of the PDC converter). In an embodiment, at least one of the heat exchanger and the assembly of heat exchangers may comprise a heat pipe. The heat pipe fluid may comprise a molten salt or a metal. Exemplary metals are cesium, NaK, potassium, lithium and silver. These and other heat exchanger designs for efficiently and cost-effectively removing heat from the reaction are known to those skilled in the art. Heat may be transferred to a thermal load. Thus, the power system may include a heater, heat supplied by at least one of the coolant outlet lines 12 and 20 leading to or transferring heat to a heat load's heat exchanger. The cooled coolant may be returned through at least one of the coolant inlet lines 11 and 19. Heat supplied by at least one of the coolant outlet lines 12 and 20 may flow to a heat engine, a steam turbine, a gas turbine, a Rankine cycle engine, a Brayton cycle engine, and a Stirling engine to be converted into mechanical power (such as mechanical power of at least one of a fast rotating shaft, a wheel, a generator, a turbofan or turboprop, a marine propeller, an impeller, and a rotating shaft machine). Alternatively, thermal power may flow from at least one of the coolant outlet lines 12 and 20 to a thermal-to-electric power converter (such as the thermal-to-electric power converter of the present disclosure). Suitable exemplary thermal-to-electrical converters include at least one of the group of heat engines, steam turbines and generators, gas turbines and generators, Rankine cycle engines, Brayton cycle engines, Stirling engines, thermionic power converters, and thermoelectric power converters. The output power from the thermal-to-electric converter may be used to power a load, and a portion may power components of the SF-CIHT battery power generator, such as the power supply 4.

The ignition of the reactants of the fuel 3 generates power and products, wherein the power may be in the form of a plasma of the products. In an embodiment, the fuel 3 is substantially partially vaporized into a gaseous physical state (such as a plasma during a hydrino reaction explosion event). The plasma passes through the plasma to the electrical power converter 6. Alternatively, the plasma emits light to the photovoltaic converter 6, and the recombined plasma forms gaseous atoms and compounds. These are condensed and collected by the steam condenser 15 and transported by the product remover-fuel loader 13 to the regeneration system 14, which includes the conveyor in connection with the regeneration system 14 and also includes the conveyor in connection with the hopper 5. The vapor condenser 15 and the product remover-fuel loader 13 can include systems such as at least one of an electrostatic collection system and at least one auger, conveyor, or pneumatic system (such as a vacuum or suction system for collecting and moving material). Plasma products and regeneration fuel from the regeneration system 14 may be transported on the electrostatically charged conveyor belt 13, with fuel and product particles adhering to the conveyor belt 13 and being transported. Regenerated fuel particles can be drawn from the regeneration chamber 14 into the tube 13 above the regeneration chamber due to the strong electrostatic attraction of the particles to the conveyor belt. Suitable systems are known to those skilled in the art.

Regeneration system 14 may include a closed vessel or chamber that may have a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure and a heat exchanger in the regeneration chamber. The regeneration heat exchanger may be coupled to a heat source, such as at least one of the electrode heat exchanger 10 and the PDC heat exchanger 18. In an embodiment, water from the tank source 14a drips onto the regenerating heat exchanger, forming steam that steams the plasma products to hydrate it. The steam may be refluxed by the action of a water condenser 22, the water condenser 22 having a line 21 from the regeneration chamber 14 to the water tank 14 a. Hydration may be carried out as a batch regeneration followed by the steps of cooling the steam and condensing the H₂O is recycled to the water tank 14a, regenerated solid fuel is fed to the holding tank 5 by means of the product remover/fuel loader 13 and the regeneration chamber 14 is refilled with plasma product by means of the product remover/fuel loader 13 to start another cycle.

In an embodiment, the plasma-electric converter 6 (such as a plasma-kinetic converter or a generator system comprising a photovoltaic converter 6) comprises a chute or channel 6a for the product to be conveyed into the product remover/fuel loader 13. At least one of the PDC converter 6, the chute 6a, and the bottom of the PDC electrode 17 can be sloped such that the product stream can be at least partially due to gravity flow. At least one of the bottom of the PDC converter 6, the chute 6a, and the PDC electrode 17 may be mechanically dithered or vibrated to assist the flow. This flow may be assisted by a shock wave formed by igniting the solid fuel. In an embodiment, at least one of the bottom of the PDC converter 6, chute 6a, and PDC electrode 17 includes a mechanical scraper or conveyor to move the product from the corresponding surface to the product remover-fuel loader 13.

The holding tank 5 can be refilled with regeneration fuel from the regeneration system 14 by a product remover-fuel loader 13. Such as any H or H consumed in the formation of hydrinos₂O can be derived from H₂H of O source 14a₂And (C) O. Herein, can be derived from H₂H of O source 14a₂O, such as any H or H consumed in the formation of hydrinos₂O, fuel consumed in regenerating the original reactant or fuel. The water source may include a solid phase or gaseous H₂O or comprises H₂Materials or compounds of O or forming H₂One or more reactants of O (such as H)₂+O₂) A tank, unit, or container 14a of at least one of. Alternatively, the source may comprise atmospheric water vapor, or extraction of H from the atmosphere₂Devices of O (such as, for example, lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, such as KMgCl₃·6(H₂O), ammonium ferric citrate, potassium and sodium hydroxides and concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acids, cellulosic fibers (such as cotton and paper), sugars, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, many fertilizer chemicals, salts (including common salt) and a wide variety of other materials known to those skilled in the art, as well as debonders such as silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, and molecular sieves (typically zeolites) or deliquescent materials such as zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and many different deliquescent salts known to those skilled in the art).

In an embodiment, the SF-CIHT battery power generator further comprises a vacuum pump 13a, the vacuum pump 13a removing any product oxygen and molecular fraction hydrogen gas. In an embodiment, at least one of oxygen and molecular hydrino is collected in the tank as a commercial product. The pump may also include a selective membrane, valve, screen, cryogenic filter, or other means known to those skilled in the art for separating oxygen and fractional hydrogen gas and may additionally collect H₂O is vaporized, and H is₂O is supplied to the regeneration system 14 to be recycled to the regenerated solid fuel. H can be added to the chamber of the container₂Gas to inhibit any oxidation of the generator components (such as the gears or PDC or MHD electrodes).

In embodiments, the fuel 3 comprises a fine powder that may be formed by ball milling the reclaimed or reprocessed solid fuel, wherein the reclamation system 14 may further comprise a ball mill, a grinder, or other device that forms smaller particles from larger particles (such as those grinding or milling devices known in the art). Exemplary solid fuel mixtures include conductors such as conductive metal powders (e.g., powders of transition metals, silver, or aluminum), oxides thereof, and H₂And O. In another embodiment, fuel 3 may comprise pellets of solid fuel that may be pressurized in regeneration system 14. The solid fuel pellets may also include powdered metal or encapsulated metal oxide and H₂O, a thin foil of another metal and optionally a metal powder. In this case, the regeneration system 14 regenerates the metal foil by means such as at least one of heating in vacuum, heating under a reducing hydrogen atmosphere, and electrolysis with an electrolyte (such as a molten salt electrolyte). The recycling system 14 also includes a metal processing system (such as a rolling or milling machine) for forming a foil from the recycled foil metal strips. The sheath may be formed by a press or a pressure applicator, wherein the encapsulated solid fuel may be pressed or compressed inside the sheath.

In exemplary embodiments, by such means as given in this disclosure (such as adding H)₂Adding H₂O, at least one of thermal regeneration and electrolytic regeneration) to regenerate the solid fuel. Due to the very large energy gain of the hydrino reaction relative to the input energy for starting the reaction (such as 100 times as in the case of NiOOH) (compared to a 3.22kJ output at 46 inputs, as given in the exemplary SF-CIHT cell test results section), this results in, for example, Ni₂O₃And NiO can be converted to hydroxides and then to hydrogenated compounds by electrochemical reactions as well as chemical reactions given in this disclosure and otherwise known to those skilled in the art. In other embodiments, such as Ti, Gd, Co, In, Fe, Ga, Al, Cr, Mo, Cu, Mn,Other metals of Zn and Sm and corresponding oxides, hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides (such as the oxides, hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides of the present disclosure) may be substituted for Ni. In another embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a metal oxide and H₂O, and the corresponding metals as the conductive matrix. The product may be a metal oxide. The solid fuel can be regenerated by reducing a portion of the hydrogen of the metal oxide to metal that is subsequently mixed with the oxide that has been rehydrated. Suitable metals whose oxides can be readily reduced to metal by hydrogen under mild heat (such as below 1000 ℃) are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. In another embodiment, the solid fuel comprises (1) does not readily react with H in the presence of mild heat₂Reduced oxides (such as at least one of alumina, alkaline earth metal oxides, and rare earth oxides), (2) oxides thereof capable of reacting with H at moderate temperatures (such as less than 1000 ℃ C.)₂Metal reduced to metal, (3) H₂And O. An exemplary fuel is MgO + Cu + H₂And O. Then, H₂The product mixture of reducible and nonreducible oxides may be treated with H₂The treatment is carried out and heated under mild conditions so that only the reducible metal oxide is converted to the metal. This mixture may be hydrated to include a regenerated solid fuel. An exemplary fuel is MgO + Cu + H₂O; wherein the product MgO + CuO undergoes H₂Reduction treatment to produce MgO + Cu hydrated into solid fuel.

In another embodiment, the oxide product, such as CuO or AgO, is regenerated by heating under at least one of vacuum and an inert gas fluid. The temperature may be in the range of at least one of about 100 ℃ to 3000 ℃, 300 ℃ to 2000 ℃,500 ℃ to 1200 ℃, and 500 ℃ to 1000 ℃. In an embodiment, the regeneration system 14 may further include a milling machine (such as at least one of a ball mill and a chop/mill) for milling at least one of the bulk oxide and the metal into a powder such as a fine powder (such as a fine powder having a particle size in at least one of a range of about 10nm to 1cm, 100nm to10 mm, 0.1 μm to 1mm, and 1 μm to 100 μm (μ ═ microns)).

In another embodiment, the regeneration system may comprise an electrolytic cell comprising metal ions, such as a molten salt electrolytic cell, wherein the metal of the metal oxide product is plated onto the electrolytic cell cathode by electrodeposition using systems and methods well known in the art. The system also includes a milling or grinding machine for forming metal particles of a desired size with the electroplated metal. May be in other components of the reaction mixture (such as H₂O) to form a regenerated solid fuel.

In an embodiment, the cell 1 of fig. 1 is capable of maintaining a vacuum or pressure below atmospheric. A subatmospheric vacuum or pressure can be maintained in cell 1 by pump 13a, as well as in a plasma-to-electric converter 6 connected to receive energetic plasma ions from the plasma source (cell 1). In embodiments, the solid fuel comprises a metal that is substantially thermodynamically stable towards H₂O reacts to become a metal oxide. In this case, the metal of the solid fuel is not oxidized during the reaction to form the product. Exemplary solid fuels include metals, oxidized metals, and H₂A mixture of O. Products such as a mixture of the initial metal and metal oxide may then be removed by the product remover-fuel loader 13 and by adding H₂O to regenerate. Can be selected from the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In combination with H₂Suitable metals for which the thermodynamics are substantially unfavorable for the O reaction. In other embodiments, the solid fuel comprises H₂O non-reactive metal and H₂At least one of O, metal oxide, hydroxide and hydroxide compound (which may comprise the same or at least one different metal).

In an embodiment, in order to regenerate solid fuel as quickly, efficiently and cost-effectively as possibleTo proceed with H₂Reduction, reduction under vacuum and rehydration.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a mixture of a hygroscopic material comprising water and a conductor. Exemplary fuels are fuels such as MgX₂Hydrated alkaline earth metal halides of (X ═ F, Cl, Br, I) and conductors such as transition metals (e.g., Co, Ni, Fe, or Cu).

The solid fuel may comprise a composition of matter such as an element or compound (such as a metal having at least one of a low melting point, a high conductivity, and a low work function), wherein the work function at high temperatures may be very low, and further comprising H₂Source of O and H₂At least one of O. In embodiments, the solid fuel comprises a conductor such as a molten metal; the high current from the power source 4 melts a conductor, such as a metal, causing thermionic emission to form a low voltage arc plasma, and the arc plasma causes H₂And O is ignited. In an embodiment, the solid fuel is highly conductive and comprises at least one low melting point metal having a low work function at high temperature, without H in the fuel₂O causes a low voltage arc plasma in which the fuel is thus ignited.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a source of H for forming hydrinos (such as hydrocarbons which may be a source of mH catalyst according to equations (6-9)). The solid fuel may include a conductor, a material for confining a source of hydrogen (such as carbon or other hydrophobic matrix), and a source of hydrogen such as a hydrocarbon. Solid fuels can be represented by high currents that result in the formation of high concentrations of H that act as a catalyst and reactants for the formation of hydrinos.

The power generator also includes apparatus and methods for variable power output. In an embodiment, the power output of the power generator is controlled by controlling a variable or interruptible flow rate and a variable or interruptible fuel ignition rate of the fuel 3 into the electrode 2 or roller or gear 2a with the power source 4. The rate of rotation of the roller or gear can also be controlled to control the rate of fuel ignition. In an embodiment, the output power regulator 7 comprises a power controller 7 for controlling the output, which may be DC. The power controller can control the fuel flow rate (the rotation speed of the gear) by controlling a gear drive motor 2d that rotates the drive gear 2c and rotates the gear 2 a. The response time of the mechanical or electrical control based on at least one of the fuel consumption rate or the ignition rate may be very fast (such as in the range of 10ms to1 μ s). The power may also be controlled by controlling the connection of the converter electrodes of the plasma to the electrical converter. For example, connecting PDC electrodes in series increases the voltage, and connecting converter electrodes in parallel increases the current. Varying the angle of the PDC electrodes or selectively connecting groups of PDC electrodes 17 at different angles relative to at least one of the magnetic field directions varies the power collected by varying at least one of the voltage and current.

In the embodiment shown in fig. 2A, the power converter 6 comprises a photovoltaic or solar cell system. In an embodiment, the output power controller/regulator 7 receives power from the photovoltaic power converter 6 and passes some of the power to the power source 4 in a form suitable for powering the source 4 to cause ignition of the solid fuel 3 at a desired repetition rate. The additional power received and regulated by the output power controller/regulator 7 may be delivered to the electrical load. Suitable integration of the photovoltaic output with the power requirements of the fuel-fired electrical system, the power source 4, and the source of the load can be achieved with an output power controller/regulator 7 used in the solar power industry as known to those skilled in the art. Suitable solar power regulators output AC power in a range of voltages suitable for the grid, such as 120V and multiples thereof.

The power controller 7 also includes sensors for input and output parameters such as voltage, current and power. The signals from the sensors may be supplied to a processor that controls the power generator. At least one of ramp-up time, ramp-down time, voltage, current, power, waveform, and frequency may be controlled. The power generator may include a resistor, such as a shunt resistor, through which power beyond that required or desired by the power load may be dissipated. The shunt resistor may be connected to an output power regulator or power controller 7. The power generator may include a built-in processor and system for providing remote monitoring that may also have the ability to disable the power generator.

In an embodiment, a portion of the electrical power output at terminal 9 is supplied to at least one of power supply 4, gear (roller) drive motor 2d, product remover-fuel loader 13, pump 13a, and regeneration system 14 to provide electrical power and energy, propagate chemical reactions, and regenerate the raw solid fuel with the reaction products. In an embodiment, a portion of the heat from at least one of the electrode heat exchanger 10 and the PDC heat exchanger 18 is input to the solid fuel regeneration system by at least one of the coolant outlet lines 12 and 20 by a coolant return cycle through at least one of the coolant input lines 11 and 19, providing thermodynamic and energy to propagate the chemical reaction to regenerate the original solid fuel with the reaction products. A portion of the output power from the heat-to-electricity converter 6 may also be used to power the regeneration system as well as other systems of the SF-CIHT battery generator.

G. Plasma dynamic plasma-electric power converter

Plasma power can be converted to electricity using a magnetic space charge separation based plasma kinetic power converter 6. Due to their lower mass relative to positive ions, electrons are preferentially bound by the magnetic flux lines of magnetized PDC electrodes (such as cylindrical PDC electrodes or PDC electrodes in a magnetic field). Thus, the mobility of the electrodes is limited; however, the positive ions are relatively free to collide with the intrinsically or extrinsically magnetized PDC electrodes. Both the electrode and the positive ions collide sufficiently with the non-magnetized PDC electrode. Plasma dynamics extract power directly from the thermal and electrical potential energy of the plasma and do not rely on the plasma flow. Alternatively, power extraction by the PDC uses the potential difference between magnetized and unmagnetized PDC electrodes immersed in the plasma to drive a current in an external load, thereby extracting electrical power directly from stored plasma thermal energy. Thermal plasma energy-to-electric plasma conversion (PDC) is achieved by inserting at least two suspended conductors into a high temperature plasma phase. One of these conductors is magnetized by an external electromagnetic field or a permanent magnet, or it is intrinsically magnetic. The others are not magnetized. A potential difference is caused due to the large difference in charge mobility of the heavy positive ions and the light electrons. This voltage is applied across the electrical load.

In embodiments, the power system shown in fig. 1 includes additional internal or external electromagnets or permanent magnets or includes multiple intrinsically magnetized and unmagnetized PDC electrodes (such as cylindrical PDC electrodes such as rod PDC electrodes). A source of uniform magnetic field B parallel to each PDC rod electrode 6B can be provided by an electromagnet, such as by a Helmholtz coil 6 d. The magnets may be at least one of permanent magnets (such as Halbach array magnets) and uncooled water-cooled superconducting electromagnets. Exemplary superconducting magnets may include NbTi, NbSn, or high temperature superconducting materials. The negative voltage from the plurality of anode rod electrodes 6b is collected by the anode or negative PDC electrode 17. In an embodiment, the at least one magnetized PDC rod electrode 6B is parallel to the applied magnetic field B; however, at least one corresponding opposing PDC rod electrode 6c is perpendicular to the magnetic field B, so that it is not magnetized due to its orientation with respect to the B direction. The positive voltage from the plurality of cathode rod electrodes 6c is collected by the cathode or positive PDC electrode 17 a. Power may be transferred to the power regulator/controller through the negative electrode power connector 8and the positive electrode power connector 8 a. In embodiments, the cell wall may be used as a PDC electrode. In embodiments, PDC electrodes include refractory metals (such as high temperature stainless steel) and other materials known to those skilled in the art that are stable in high temperature atmosphere environments. In an embodiment, the plasma dynamics converter further comprises a plasma confinement structure (such as a magnetic bottle or a source of a solenoidal field such as a Helmholtz coil 6d) for confining the plasma and extracting more of the power of the energetic ions as electricity.

In other embodiments of the power converter, v_||＞＞v_⊥The ion flow along the z-axis may then enter a compression section comprising an increased axial magnetic field gradient, wherein the ion flow is invariant due to thermal insulationConstant, resulting in a component v of electron motion parallel to the z-axis_||Is at least partially converted into vertical motion v_⊥. Due to v_⊥And the resulting azimuthal current is formed around the z-axis. The current is deflected radially in the plane of motion under the action of an axial magnetic field to generate a hall voltage between the inner and outer ring MHD electrodes of the disk generator magnetohydrodynamic power converter. The voltage may drive a current through the electrical load. Can also be usedA direct converter or other plasma to the electrical device of the present disclosure converts the plasma power to electricity. In another embodiment, a magnetic field (such as the magnetic field of the Helmholtz coil 6d) confines the plasma such that it can be converted into electricity by the plasma leading to the electrical converter 6, which electrical converter 6 can be a plasma-dynamic power converter. In an embodiment, the Helmholtz coil comprises a magnetic bottle. The PDC converter 6 may be close to the plasma source relative to the Helmholtz coil as shown in fig. 1. For a plasma-to-electrical converter assembly that includes a magnet located outside the cell container, the separating wall may comprise a non-ferrous material such as stainless steel. For example, the walls separating the Helmholtz coil 6 from the vessel 1 containing the plasma or the side walls of a PDC converter or MHD converter may comprise a material such as stainless steel that is readily penetrated by magnetic flux. In this embodiment, the magnets are externally disposed to provide a magnetic flux transverse to the magnetic transversely oriented PDC rod electrodes or transverse to the direction of plasma expansion of the MHD converter.

Each unit also outputs thermal power that can be extracted from the electrode heat exchanger 10 through coolant inlet and outlet lines 11 and 12, respectively, and from the PDC heat exchanger 18 through coolant inlet and outlet lines 19 and 20, respectively. The thermal power can be used directly as heat or converted into electricity. In an embodiment, the power system further comprises a thermal-to-electric converter. Conventional Rankine or Brayton power plants (such as steam plants including boilers, steam turbines and generators or plants including externally heated gas turbines, for example) may be usedA gas turbine of a turbine and a steam plant of a generator). Suitable reactants, regeneration reactions and systems and Power stations may include those of the present disclosure, prior US patent applications of the present applicant (such as "Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor", PCT/US08/61455,2008 filed 24.4.; "heterogenous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor", PCT/US09/052072, 2009 filed 29.7.; PCT/US Hydrogen Catalyst Power System ", PCT/US10/27828, filed 18.2010.3.18.2010.; PCT/US11/28889, filed 17.2011 PCT/H;" PCT₂O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-CatalystPower System ", PCT/US12/31369 filed 3, 30/2012; "CIHT Power System", PCT/US13/041938 ("Mills' prior application"), filed on 21.5.13.5.13 and the present disclosures of the present applicant (such as R.L. Mills, M.Nansteel, W.good, G.ZHao, "Design for a Black light Power Multi-cell therapy Coupled Reactor Based on Hydrogen Catalyst Systems", int.J. energy research, Vol.36, (2012), 778-; doi: 10.1002/er.1834; R.L. Mills, G.ZHao, W.good, "Continuous Thermal Power System", Applied Energy, Vol.88, (2011) 789-. In other embodiments, the power system includes one of the other thermal-to-electric power converters known in the art (such as direct power converters, such as thermionic and thermoelectric power converters, and other heat engines, such as Stirling engines).

In an embodiment, the 10MW power generator is subjected to the following steps:

1. fuel flows from the hopper into a pair of gears and/or support members of approximately 0.5g portion of highly conductive solid fuel in the interdigitated area, where a low voltage, high current is passed through the fuel to cause it to ignite. Ignition releases approximately 10kJ of energy per fraction. The gear comprised 60 teeth and rotated at 1000RPM so that the ignition rate was 1kHz corresponding to10 MW of power. In an embodiment, the gear is designed such that the layer of fuel powder in direct contact with the gear does not carry the critical current density for detonation, whereas the bulk region is such that the gear is protected from corrosion by the explosion from ignition of the fuel.

2. The substantially fully ionized plasma expands outside the gear on an axis perpendicular to the gear and enters a magnetohydrodynamic or plasma-kinetic converter, where the plasma fluid is converted to electricity. Alternatively, bright light is emitted from plasma that is converted into electricity using a photovoltaic power converter.

3. A part of the power is used to power the electrodes by the power source and the remaining is then power regulated by the corresponding unit after it can be supplied to the external load. The heat carried away by the electrode heat exchanger from the gear hub flows to the regeneration system heat exchanger, and the remainder flows to an external heat load.

4. The plasma gas is condensed to include no H₂O, solid fuel product.

5. An auger (such as that used in the pharmaceutical or food industry) delivers product powder to a regeneration system where it is hydrated with steam, wherein H is a cause of the product powder₂H in O reservoir₂O flows over the hot coil of the regeneration system heat exchanger, forming steam.

6. Conveying the regenerated solid fuel to the hopper by auger, as long as H is added back₂O allows continuous use of the fuel.

Suppose that 0.5 grams of solid fuel produces 1kJ of energy. The density of the fuel was assumed to be that of Cu (8.96 g/cm)³) Then the fuel volume of each tooth in the interdigitated area is 0.056cm³. If the depth of conduction for achieving high conductivity through the fuel is 2mm, then the depth is defined by the inter-digital gap of the triangular teeth of each gearThe fuel matrix was 4mm and the gear width was 0.11cm³And/(0.2) (0.4) ═ 1.39 cm. In another embodiment, H for an exemplary 10MW generator is given below₂O consumption:

H₂O→H₂(1/4)+1/2O₂(50 MJ/mole H₂O)；10MJ/s/50MJ/mole H₂O＝0.2moles(3.6g)H₂Consider the exemplary case where 0.5g of solid fuel recycled for ignition and regeneration in 1 minute produces 10kJ, the inventory of solid fuel is given as 10MJ/s × 0.5g/10kJ 500g/s (30 kg/min) and the inventory of solid fuel is 30kg or about 3 liters.

H. Arc and high DC, AC, and DC-AC mixture current fraction hydrogen plasma with photovoltaic conversion of optical power Battery with a battery cell

In exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, a power system having photovoltaic conversion of optical power may include any of the components disclosed herein with respect to SF-CIHT cells. For example, certain embodiments include one or more of the following: the container can have a pressure of at least one of atmospheric, above atmospheric, and below atmospheric; the reactants may include H for forming at least one of a source of catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen₂A source of O and a conductive matrix; the reactant may include H₂Source of O, including bulk phase H₂O except for bulk phase H₂Out of O state, subjected to formation of H₂O and liberation bound H₂Compound(s) of at least one of the reactions of O; binding H₂O may comprise and H₂O-interactive compounds, wherein H₂O is in adsorption H₂O, bound H₂O, physical adsorption of H₂A state of at least one of O, and hydration water; the reactants may include a conductor and one or more compounds or materials that undergo a release phase H₂O, adsorption of H₂O, bound H₂O, physical adsorption of H₂At least one of O and hydrated water and the reaction product thereof has H₂O; newborn H₂At least one of the source of O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen may comprise a) at least one H₂At least one of a source of O, b) at least one source of oxygen, and c) at least one source of hydrogen; the reactants may form at least one of a source of catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and may include a) H₂O and H₂Source of O, b) O₂、H₂O、HOOH、OOH^-Peroxo ion, superoxide ion, hydride, H₂At least one of a halide, an oxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound, a hydrated compound selected from the group of at least one of a halide, an oxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound, and c) a conductive matrix; the oxyhydrogen compound may include at least one of the group of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and the oxide may include CuO, Cu₂O、CoO、Co₂O₃、Co₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃NiO, and Ni₂O₃At least one of the group of (a); the hydroxide may comprise Cu (OH)₂、Co(OH)₂、Co(OH)₃、Fe(OH)₂、Fe(OH)₃And Ni (OH)₂The oxygen-containing compound may include sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate, perbromate, and periodate, MXO₃、MXO₄(M ═ metals such as alkali metals (e.g., Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs); X ═ F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li₂O, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO₄、ZnO、MgO、CaO、MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃、NiO、FeO、Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、P₂O₃、P₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃、CoO、Co₂O₃、Co₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃、NiO、Ni₂O₃Rare earth oxide, CeO₂、La₂O₃Oxyhydroxide, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, feoooh, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and the conductive matrix may include at least one of the group of metal powder, carbon, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile.

In other embodiments of the present disclosure, the power system may include one or more of the following: the reactants may include a metal, metal oxide thereof and H₂Mixtures of O, wherein the metal is present with H₂The reaction of O is thermodynamically unfavorable; the reactants may include transition metal, alkaline earth metal halide, and H₂Mixtures of O, wherein the metal is present with H₂The reaction of O is thermodynamically unfavorable; the reactants may include a conductor, a hygroscopic material, and H₂A mixture of O; the conductor may comprise metal powder or carbon powder, wherein the metal or carbon and H₂The reaction of O is thermodynamically unfavorable; the hygroscopic material may comprise lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, such as KMgCl₃·6(H₂O), ammonium ferric citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid, cellulosic fibers, sugars, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, fertilizer chemicals, salt, desiccants, silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, molecular sieves, zeolites, deliquescent materials, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and deliquescent salts; the power system may include a conductor, a hygroscopic material, and H₂O, wherein the (metal)) (moisture-absorbing material), (H)₂O) is in the range of about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); at least one of (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1); and H₂The thermodynamically unfavorable metal for the reaction of O may be at least one of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In; can be prepared by adding H₂O to regenerate the reactants; the reactants may include a metal, metal oxide thereof and H₂O, wherein the metal oxide is capable of undergoing H at a temperature of less than 1000 ℃₂Reduction; the reactant may include a material that is not readily reacted with H in the presence of mild heat₂Reduced oxides, the oxides being capable of being H at temperatures below 1000 ℃₂Metal reduced to metal, and H₂A mixture of O; the oxide of which can be H-substituted at a temperature below 1000 deg.C₂The metal reduced to the metal is at least one of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In; may not be easily heated by H₂The reduced metal oxide comprises at least one of alumina, an alkaline earth oxide, and a rare earth oxide; the solid fuel may comprise carbon or activated carbon and H₂O, wherein H is added₂Rehydrating in the presence of O to regenerate the mixture; the reactant may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a complex, and a compound; h₂The O mole% content can be in at least one range of about 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to 100%, 0.0001% to 100%, 0.001% to 100%, 0.01% to 100%, 0.1% to 100%, 1% to 100%, 10% to 100%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10%; can be used forThe current of the power source delivering short pulses of high current electrical energy is sufficiently large to cause the hydrino reactant to undergo a very high rate of hydrino-forming reaction.

In some embodiments of the disclosure, the power system may include one or more of the following: a power source that can deliver short pulses of high current electrical energy includes a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed voltage selected to cause a current in a range of at least one of 100A to1,000,000A, 1kA to1, 00,000A, 10kA to 50 kA; at 100A/cm²To1,000,000A/cm²、1000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²And 2000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm²Determining a voltage by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, wherein the voltage is given by the desired current multiplied by the resistance of a sample of the solid fuel or energetic material; the DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from about 0.1V to 500kV, 0.1V to 100kV, and 1V to 50kV, and the AC frequency may be in a range of about 0.1Hz to10 GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to10 kHz; the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample may be in at least one range selected from 0.001 milli-ohms to 100 megaohms, 0.1 ohms to1 megaohms, and 10 ohms to1 kilo-ohms, and the conductivity of a suitable load per electrode area effective for forming hydrinos may be from about 10 to about 10^-10ohm^-1cm^-2To10⁶ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-5ohm^-1cm^-2To10⁶ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-4ohm^-1cm^-2To10⁵ohm^-1cm^-2、10^- ³ohm^-1cm^-2To10⁴ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-2ohm^-1cm^-2To10³ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-1ohm^-1cm^-2To10²ohm^-1cm^-2And 1ohm^-1cm^-2To10 ohm^-1cm^-2At least one range selected from; regeneration systemMay include at least one of hydration, thermal, chemical, and electrochemical systems; the photovoltaic power converter may include a photon-to-electric power converter; the power system may include a light distribution system or a concentrated photovoltaic device; the photovoltaic power converter may include a photon-to-thermal power converter; the power system may include a thermal-to-electrical power converter, a concentrated solar power plant, a tracker, or an energy storage device; the power system may be operably connected to a power grid; the power system may comprise a stand-alone system; the photovoltaic power converter may comprise a plurality of multijunction photovoltaic cells; the multi-junction photovoltaic cell may be a triple junction photovoltaic cell; the photovoltaic power converter may be located within the vacuum unit; the photovoltaic power converter may include at least one of an anti-reflective coating, a light-blocking matching coating, or a protective coating; the photovoltaic power converter may be operably coupled to a cleaning system configured to clean at least a portion of the photovoltaic power converter; the power system may include an optical filter; the photovoltaic power converter may include at least one of a single crystal cell, a polycrystalline cell, an amorphous cell, a string/strip silicon cell, a multijunction cell, a homojunction cell, a heterojunction cell, a p-i-n device, a thin film cell, a dye-sensitized cell, and an organic photovoltaic cell; the photovoltaic power converter may include a multi-junction cell, wherein the multi-junction cell includes at least one of an inverted cell, an upright cell, a lattice-mismatched cell, a lattice-matched cell, a cell comprising a III-V semiconductor material; the power system may include an output power regulator operably coupled to the photovoltaic power converter and an output power terminal operably coupled to the output power regulator; the power system may include an inverter or an energy storage device; a portion of the power output from the output power terminals may be directed to an energy storage device or a component or a plurality of poles of a power generation system or an external load or grid.

In an embodiment, the CIHT cell comprises a fractional hydrogen forming plasma cell, referred to as a fractional hydrogen plasma cell, wherein at least a portion of the optical power is converted to electrical power by a photovoltaic converter. The high current may be DC, AC, or a combination thereof. The plasma gas may include a source of H or a HOH catalyst (such as H)₂O) at least one of the sources. Other suitableThe plasma gas is H₂O, H source, H₂Source of oxygen, O₂And at least one of an inert gas such as a rare gas. The gas pressure may be in a range of at least one of about 0.001 torr to 100atm, 1 torr to 50atm, and 100 torr to10 atm. The voltage may be high (such as in a range of at least one of about 50V to 100kV, 1kV to 50kV, and 1kV to 30 kV). The current may be in a range of about at least one of 0.1mA to 100A, 1mA to 50A, and 1mA to 10A. The plasma may include arcs having much higher currents (such as currents in a range of at least one of approximately 1A to 100kA, 100A to 50kA, and 1kA to 20 kA). In embodiments, the high current accelerates the hydrino reaction rate. In an embodiment, the voltage and current are AC. The drive frequency may be a radio frequency (such as in the range of 3kHz to 15 kHz). In an embodiment, the frequency is in a range of at least one of about 0.1Hz to 100GHz, 100Hz to10 GHz, 1kHz to10 GHz, 1MHz to 1GHz, and 10MHz to1 GHz. The conductor of the at least one electrode exposed to the plasma gas may provide electron thermionic and field emission support for an arc plasma.

In an embodiment, the cell includes a high voltage power source applied to achieve breakdown in a plasma gas comprising a source of H and a source of HOH catalyst. The plasma gas may include at least one of a source of water vapor, hydrogen, oxygen, and an inert gas such as a noble gas (e.g., argon). The high voltage power may include Direct Current (DC), Alternating Current (AC), and mixtures thereof. Breakdown in the plasma gas causes a large increase in conductivity. The power source can have a high current. A high current at a lower voltage, lower than the breakdown voltage, is applied to cause the HOH catalyst to catalyze H into several hydrogen at a high rate. The high current may include Direct Current (DC), Alternating Current (AC), and mixtures thereof.

Embodiments of the high current plasma cell include a plasma gas capable of forming a HOH catalyst and H. The plasma gas includes a source of HOH and a source of H (such as H)₂O and H₂Gas). The plasma gas may also include additional gases that allow, enhance, or maintain the HOH catalyst and HAnd (3) a body. Other suitable gases are noble gases. The battery includes at least one of at least one set of electrodes, at least one antenna, at least one RF coil, and at least one microwave chamber, which may include an antenna and further include at least one breakdown power source (such as a breakdown power source capable of generating a voltage or electronic or ionic energy sufficient to cause the plasma gas to be electrically broken down). The voltage may be in a range of at least one of about 10V to 100kV, 100V to 50kV, and 1kV to 20 kV. The plasma gas may be initially in a liquid state as well as a gaseous state. As a liquid H₂O or including liquid H₂A plasma may be formed in the O medium. The gas pressure may be in a range of at least one of about 0.001 torr to 100atm, 0.01 torr to 760 torr, and 0.1 torr to 100 torr. The battery may include at least one auxiliary power source that provides a high current once breakdown is achieved. High currents can also be provided by a breakdown power supply. Each of the power sources may be DC or AC. The frequency range of any one may be in a range of at least about at least one of 0.1Hz to 100GHz, 100Hz to10 GHz, 1kHz to10 GHz, 1MHz to 1GHz, and 10MHz to1 GHz. The high current may be in a range of about at least one of 1A to 100kA, 10A to 100kA, 1000A to 100kA, 10kA to 50 kA. The high discharge current density can be 0.1A/cm²To1,000,000A/cm²、1A/cm²To1,000,000A/cm²、10A/cm²To1,000,000A/cm²、100A/cm²To1,000,000A/cm²And 1kA/cm²To1,000,000A/cm²Within a range of at least one of (a). In an embodiment, at least one of the breakdown and the auxiliary high current power source may be applied intermittently. The intermittent frequency may be in a range of about at least one of 0.001Hz to 1GHz, 0.01Hz to 100MHz, 0.1Hz to10 MHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, and 10Hz to 100 kHz. The duty cycle may be in a range of at least one of approximately 0.001% to 99.9%, 1% to 99%, and 10% to 90%. In an embodiment, the DC power source is separated from the AC power source by at least one capacitor as a result of including AC such as the RF power source and the DC power source. In embodiments, a source of H (such as H) for forming hydrinos₂And H₂At least one of O) to maintain a given desired batteryA fraction hydrogen component-rate of output power of a gain (such as a battery gain in which the fraction hydrogen power component exceeds the input electric power) is supplied to the battery.

In an embodiment, the plasma gas is a liquid H₂O substitution, liquid H₂O may be pure or comprise an aqueous solution of a salt such as concentrated brine. The solution may be accompanied by AC excitation (such as high frequency radiation such as RF) or microwave excitation. Including H, e.g. concentrated brine₂An excitation medium of O may be placed between the RF transmitter and receiver. The RF transmitter or antenna receives RF power from an RF generator capable of generating a RF signal whose frequency and power can be included H₂O medium absorbs RF signals. The battery and the excitation parameter may be one of the battery and the excitation parameter of the present disclosure. In an embodiment, the RF frequency may be in the range of about 1MHz to 20 MHz. The RF excitation source may also include a tuning circuit or matching network that matches the load impedance to the transmitter. The metal particles may be suspended in H₂O or salt solution. The incident power may be high (e.g., at 0.1W/cm)²To 100kW/cm²、0.5W/cm²To10 kW/cm²And 0.5W/cm²To 1kW/cm²To cause arcing in the plasma due to interaction of incident radiation with the metal particles. The size of the metal particles can be adjusted to optimize arc formation. Suitable particle sizes are in the range of about 0.1 μm to10 mm. The arc carries high currents which cause the hydrino reactions that occur with high kinetic energy. In another embodiment, the plasma gas comprises a gas such as H₂H of O vapor₂O, batteries include metal objects that are also accompanied by the generation of high frequency radiation (such as RF or microwaves). The field concentrated at the sharp point of the metal object causes the H-containing₂Arcing in the plasma gas of O greatly enhances the hydrino reaction rate.

In an embodiment, the high current plasma comprises an arc. Arc plasmas may have superior resolution characteristics to glow discharge plasmas. In the former case, the electron and ion temperatures may be approximated, while in the latter case, the electron thermal energy may be approximatedMuch larger than the ionic thermal energy. In an embodiment, the arc plasma cell comprises a pinch plasma. Plasma gas (such as, containing H)₂O plasma gas) is maintained at a pressure sufficient to form an arc plasma. The pressure may be high (such as in the range of about 100 torr to 100 atm). In an embodiment, the breakdown and the high current power supply may be the same. Can be carried out in a liquid H by a power source comprising a plurality of capacitors₂High pressure H of O₂An arc is formed in O, and the plurality of capacitors includes a group of capacitors capable of supplying a high voltage (such as a voltage in the range of about 1kV to 50 kV) and a high current (such as a high current that may increase as resistance and voltage decrease due to arc formation and maintenance), wherein the current may be in the range of about 0.1mA to 100,000A. The voltage can be increased by connecting capacitors in series and the capacitance can be increased by connecting capacitors in parallel to achieve the desired high voltage and current. The capacitance may be sufficient to maintain the plasma for a long duration (such as 0.1s to over 24 hours). The power circuit may have additional components (such as an auxiliary high current power source) that are maintained once the arc is formed. In an embodiment, the power supply comprises a plurality of capacitor banks that can supply power to the arc sequentially, wherein when a given charged capacitor bank is discharged, each discharged capacitor bank can be recharged by the charging source. The plurality of sets may be sufficient to maintain a steady state arc plasma. In another embodiment, the power source for providing at least one of plasma breakdown and high current to the arc plasma comprises at least one transformer. In an embodiment, the arc is created at a high DC repetition frequency (such as in the range of about 0.01Hz to1 MHz). In embodiments, the roles of the cathode and anode may be periodically interchanged. The frequency of the interchange may be low to maintain the arc plasma. The periodic frequency of the alternating current may be at least one of about 0Hz to 1000Hz, 0Hz to 500Hz, and 0Hz to 100 Hz. The power source may have a maximum current limit that maintains the hydrino reaction rate at the desired frequency. In an embodiment, the high current may be used to control the hydrino generating power to provide a variable power output. High power controlled by power sourceThe flow limit may be in a range of at least one of about 1kA to 100kA, 2kA to 50kA, and 10kA to 30 kA. The arc plasma may have a negative resistance including a voltage behavior that decreases as the current increases. The plasma arc battery power circuit may include a positive impedance form (such as an electrical explosion that creates a steady current at a desired magnitude). The electrodes may have a desired geometry to provide an electric field therebetween. Suitable geometries are at least one of a central cylindrical electrode and an outer concentric electrode, parallel plate electrodes and opposing rods or cylinders. The electrode may provide at least one of electron thermionic and field emission at the cathode to support an arc plasma. High current densities (such as up to about 10) can be formed⁶A/cm²High current density). The electrode may comprise at least one of a material having a high melting point (such as a material In the group of refractory metals such as W or Mo) and a material having a low reactivity with water (such as a material In the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In). In an embodiment, the electrodes may be movable. The electrodes may be placed in close proximity or direct contact with each other and then mechanically separated to initiate and sustain an arc plasma. In this case, the breakdown voltage may be much smaller than in the case where the electrodes are permanently separated by a fixed gap. The arc forming voltage applied with the movable or gap adjustable electrode may be in the range of about 0.1V to 20kV, 1V to10 kV, and 10V to1 kV. The electrode separation can be adjusted to maintain a steady state arc at a desired current or current density.

In an embodiment, in the water-arc plasma, OH, HOH, O are generated₂At least one (n is an integer) of nO and nH. In FIG. 2B, H is shown₂Schematic diagram of an O-arc plasma cell power generator 100. Arc plasma cell 109 includes two electrodes such as outer cylindrical electrode 106 and central shaft electrode 103 (such as a central shaft) along with cell top cover 111 and insulator base 102, cell top cover 111 and insulator base 102 may define the cell 109 capable of having vacuum, atmospheric pressure and atmosphereAn arc plasma chamber at least one of atmospheric pressure. Cell 109 is supplied with arc plasma gas or liquid (such as H)₂O). Alternatively, the electrodes 103 and 106 are submerged in an arc plasma gas or liquid (such as H) contained in the vessel 109₂O) in (A). H can be caused by addition of an ion source (e.g., an ionic compound such as a salt can be dissolved)₂O is more conductive to achieve arc breakdown at lower voltages. The salt may comprise a hydroxide or halide (such as an alkali hydroxide or halide) or other salts of the present disclosure. The supply may come from a source such as a tank 107, the tank 107 having a valve 108 and a line 110 through which gas or liquid flows into the cell 109, and the exhaust gas flows out of the cell through an outlet line 126 having at least one pressure gauge 115 and a valve 116, wherein a pump 117 removes gas from the cell 109 to maintain at least one of a desired flow rate and pressure. In an embodiment, the plasma gas is maintained at a high flow rate condition (such as supersonic flow rates at high pressures, such as atmospheric pressure and above) to provide a sufficiently large amount of reactant flow to the hydrino reaction to produce hydrino-based power at a desired level. Suitable exemplary flow rates achieve a hydrino-based power in excess of the input power. Alternatively, the liquid water may be in the cell 109 (such as in a reservoir bounded by electrodes). The electrodes 103 and 106 are connected to a high voltage-high current power supply 123 through battery power connectors 124. The connection to the center electrode 103 may be made through the base plate 101. In an embodiment, power source 123 may be supplied by another power source (such as charging source 121) through connector 122. The high voltage-high current power source 123 may include a capacitor bank, capacitors may be connected in series to provide high voltage and in parallel to provide high capacitance and high current, and the power source 123 may include a plurality of such capacitor banks, wherein each bank may be temporarily discharged and charged to provide a power output that may approach a continuous output. The capacitor bank(s) may be charged by a charging source 121.

In an embodiment, the electrodes (such as 103) may be powered by an AC power source 123, the AC power source 123 may be high frequency and may be high power (such as,high power provided by an RF generator such as a Tesla coil). In another embodiment, the electrode 103 comprises an antenna of a microwave plasma torch. The power and frequency may be the power and frequency of the present disclosure (such as in the range of approximately 100kHz to 100MHz or 100MHz to10 GHz and 100W to 500kW, respectively, per liter). In an embodiment, the cylindrical electrode may comprise only one cell wall and may comprise an insulator (such as quartz, ceramic, or alumina). The cell gap 111 may also include electrodes (such as grounded or ungrounded electrodes). The cell is operable to form a plasma arc or H that at least partially covers electrode 103 within arc plasma cell 109₂And O electron flow. The arc or electron flow greatly enhances the hydrino reaction rate.

In an embodiment, arc plasma cell 109 is turned off to restrict thermal energy release. The water inside the sealed cell is then treated according to H at the desired operating temperature and pressure as known to those skilled in the art₂The O-phase diagram is at the standard condition for liquid and gaseous mixtures. The operating temperature may be in the range of about 25 ℃ to 1000 ℃. The operating pressure may be in a range of at least one of about 0.001 to 200atm, 0.01 to 200atm, and 0.1 to 100 atm. Battery 109 may include a vaporizer in which at least one phase including hot water, ultra-high temperature water, steam, and ultra-high temperature steam flows out of steam outlet 114 and is supplied to a thermal or mechanical load (such as a steam turbine) to generate electricity. At least one of the cooling of the outlet fluid and the condensation of the steam occurs with a transfer of thermal power to the load, with the cooled steam or water being returned to the battery through the loop 112. Alternatively, make-up steam or water is returned. The system may be closed and may also include a pump 113 (such as H)₂O recycle or reflux pump) to recycle H in its physical state for use as a coolant₂And O. The battery may also include a heat exchanger 119, which heat exchanger 119 may be on the inside or outside battery wall, bringing thermal energy into the coolant, which is cold when entering the coolant inlet 118 and hot when exiting the coolant outlet 120. Thereafter, the hot coolant flows to a thermal load (such as a pure thermal load) or a thermo-mechanical power converter or a thermo-electric power conversionA machine (such as a steam or gas turbine or a heat engine such as a steam engine and optionally an electrical generator). Other exemplary converters that convert heat to mechanical or electrical power are Rankine or Brayton cycle engines, Stirling engines, thermionic and thermoelectric converters, and other systems known in the art. Systems and methods of at least one of thermal-mechanical and electrical conversion are also disclosed in Mills prior applications, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

In an embodiment, electrodes 103 and 106, such as carbon, or metal electrodes, such as tungsten or copper electrodes, may be fed to cell 109 as they corrode from the plasma. The electrodes may be replaced when sufficiently eroded or replaced continuously. Corrosion products such as precipitates can be collected from the cell and recycled to the new electrode. Thus, the arc plasma cell power generator further comprises an electrode corrosion product recovery system 105, an electrode regeneration system 104, and a continuous supply of regenerated electrodes 125. In an embodiment, at least one electrode (such as a cathode, such as the center electrode 103) that tends to corrode in large part can be regenerated by the systems and methods of the present disclosure. For example, the electrode may include a material selected from its corresponding oxide accessible H₂Treating, heating and heating under vacuum one of the reduced metals Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In. The regeneration system 104 may include a furnace for melting at least one of the oxide and the metal and casting or extruding the electrode with the regenerated metal. Systems and methods for metal smelting and forming or milling are well known to those skilled in the art. In another embodiment, regeneration system 104 may include an electrolytic cell (such as a metal ion-containing molten salt electrolytic cell) in which electrode metal may be plated onto the electrodes by electrodeposition using systems and methods well known in the art.

In the embodiment of a plasma cell (such as arc plasma cell 109) shown in fig. 2B, H₂O-arc plasma cell outputs high optical power, passing lightThe photovoltaic power converter converts light into electricity. In an embodiment, the cell top cover 111 includes a photovoltaic power converter for receiving high optical power and converting it into electricity. In another embodiment, at least one of the electrodes 103 and 106 comprises a grid electrode that is at least partially transparent to light. The transparency may be due to gaps between the conductive portions of the electrodes. The photovoltaic converter is arranged behind the grid electrode and converts the optical power into electricity. In another embodiment, electrodes 103 and 106 comprise parallel plates. The parallel plate electrodes may be constrained in a cell 109 that may be sealed. High optical power can be received by the photovoltaic converter 106a that is transverse to the plane formed by the electrodes. The photovoltaic converter may comprise a photovoltaic cell and may further comprise a window transparent to the optical power to protect the cell from damage due to the pressure wave of the arc plasma. Supporting plasma and arc plasma (e.g., containing H)₂O plasma) and include electrodes and other embodiments of electrode configurations and designs that facilitate light penetration to at least one region of a photovoltaic converter, such as a photovoltaic converter known to those skilled in the art, are within the scope of the present disclosure.

In an embodiment, the hydrino cell includes a pinch plasma source for forming hydrino continuous emissions. The cell includes a cathode, an anode, a power source, and at least one of a source of hydrogen and a source of an HOH catalyst for forming a pinch plasma. The plasma system may include a dense plasma focus source (such as a dense plasma focus source known to those skilled in the art). The plasma current can be very high (e.g., greater than 1 kA). The plasma may be an arc plasma. The distinguishing feature is that the plasma gas comprises at least one of H and HOH or H catalyst and the plasma conditions can be optimized to give continuous emission of hydrogen. In an embodiment, optical power is converted to electricity with the photoelectric converter 106a or 111.

I. Photovoltaic optical-electrical power converter

In the alternative plasma power converter 6 of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in fig. 2A, the plasma generated by igniting the solid fuel 3 is highly ionized. Hydrino catalytic reactions, such as those given by equations (6-9) and (44-47), and the energy released when hydrino is formed, cause fuel ionization. The ions recombine with free electrons and emit light. Additional light is emitted due to decay of atoms, ions, molecules, compounds and materials in the excited state. The light is incident on the photovoltaic converter 6. The photovoltaic power converter 6 includes a cathode 6c and an anode 6b, both the cathode 6c and the anode 6b being connected to an output power controller/regulator 7 via cathode and anode output power connectors 8a and 8, respectively. The light may be received by a photon-to-electricity converter 6, such as a photovoltaic tile inside the vacuum vessel 1. The photovoltaic power converter may be cooled by at least one heat exchanger 18, the heat exchanger 18 receiving cold coolant through a photovoltaic coolant inlet line 19 and discharging hot coolant through a photovoltaic coolant outlet line 20. The disclosure given herein regarding the photovoltaic conversion of optical power into electricity of SF-CIHT cells also applies to arcs and high DC, AC and DC-AC hybrid current fractional hydrogen plasma cells with photovoltaic conversion of optical power.

The photovoltaic converter 6 may include a coating for at least one of antireflection layers or coatings such as silicon monoxide, optical impedance matching, and protection from erosion or damage by plasma or kinetic energy materials. The film may include a window. The window may further comprise a system for cleaning the explosion products, which cover the window and at least partially block the light transmission of the photovoltaic converter. In an embodiment, the optical window is cleaned. Cleaning may include at least one of a chemical cleaning or etching and a plasma cleaning or etching system and method. The window may comprise a plurality of windows, each window being removable such that one is replaced with another and used to transmit light to the converter while cleaning at least one other window of explosive products. In an embodiment, the optical window is cleaned. Cleaning may include at least one of a chemical cleaning or etching and a plasma cleaning or etching system and method. In an embodiment, a vapor of a gas, such as an inert gas, flows in a direction opposite to the expanding ignition plasma to prevent product from covering at least one of the protective window, the light collection system (such as at least one of a fiber optic cable and a mirror), and the photovoltaic converter.

The photovoltaic power converter of the SF-CIHT power generator (fig. 2A) may also include a light distribution system for providing optical power of the SF-CIHT cell to a plurality of photovoltaic cells that may be arranged in a compact design. In an embodiment of the photovoltaic converter 6, the light output (optical power) is directed to a plurality of photovoltaic converters 6. The light output may be distributed by an optical distribution system, such as an optical distribution system comprising at least one of a mirror and a lens. In one embodiment, the light is formed into a beam with a lens at the focus of a parabolic mirror and directed to a lens at the focus of another parabolic mirror that outputs parallel rays of light incident on the photovoltaic cell 6. The system comprises a plurality of such parabolic mirrors, lenses and photovoltaic cells. Beam splitters, prisms, gratings, diffusers, and other optical elements known to those skilled in the art may also be used to direct and distribute light. An element such as a prism or grating may separate multiple wavelength ranges or bands of light output so that it may be directed to a photovoltaic cell having maximum efficiency of light-to-electricity conversion within the wavelength range of each band. In another embodiment, the optical power is collected in a fiber optic cable bundle. Collection may be achieved with at least one or more lenses and one or more optical impedance matching plates, such as quarter wave plates. The light distribution system may further include at least one mirror for reflecting any light reflected by the fiber optic cable back to at least one of the cable entry, the light collection system, and the impedance matching plate toward the cable. The mirror may be at the center of ignition, with the light acting as a point source from the mirror center. The mirror may be at the plane of the gear electrode of fig. 1 and 2. The mirrors may include a pair of mirrors that reflect light in opposite directions toward the opposing matched photovoltaic converters (as shown in fig. 2A). The opposing mirrors may reflect light back into a light distribution system, such as a light distribution system that includes fiber optic cables. The reflector may have a shape that optimizes the reflection of the back-reflected light towards the light distribution system. The fiber optic cable elements of the fiber optic cable may be selected for the wavelength band so that light may be selectively directed to a plurality of matched photovoltaic cells having a maximum light-to-electricity conversion efficiency within the wavelength range of the band. In another embodiment, the light distribution system and photovoltaic power converter include a plurality of transparent or translucent photovoltaic cells arranged in a stack such that as light penetrates into the stack, optical power from the ignition is converted to electricity at the members of the stack. In an embodiment, the light from the ignition is collected before the black body is cooled by a mechanism such as expansion. The plasma may be held in a magnetic bottle (such as a magnetic bottle generated by a Helmholtz coil) to prevent expansion or collision losses so that maximum power can be extracted by radiation.

In an embodiment, the photovoltaic converter may comprise a thermal-to-photovoltaic converter. The cell 1 may comprise at least one wall that absorbs the heat due to the fuel ignition and the warmed wall emits light towards the photovoltaic converter 6. The photovoltaic converter 6 may be external to the sealed cell 1. Heat exchangers such as photovoltaic heat exchanger 18 have a coolant capable of high thermal power transfer. The coolant may comprise water or other liquids (such as solvents or liquid metals or salts known to those skilled in the art). In an embodiment, at least one of the heat exchanger and the assembly of heat exchangers may comprise a heat pipe. The heat pipe fluid may comprise molten salts or metals. Exemplary metals are cesium, NaK, potassium, sodium, lithium and silver.

In another embodiment, the plasma is confined by at least one of magnetic or electric field confinement to minimize contact of the plasma with the photon-to-electricity converter. The magnetic confinement may comprise a magnetic bottle. Magnetic confinement may be provided by a Helmholtz coil 6 d. In other embodiments, the converter converts kinetic energy from charged or neutral species (such as energetic electrons, ions, and hydrogen atoms) in the plasma into electricity. This transducer may be contacted with the plasma to receive energetic species.

In an embodiment, the SF-CHIT generator comprises a hydrogen catalyst cell that generates at least one of atoms and ions of high population (such as atoms and ions in fuel materials) having the electrically excited states and atoms of bond energy given in equation (1). The power is emitted as photons using spontaneous or stimulated emission. Light is converted to electricity using a photon-to-electricity converter of the present disclosure, such as a photovoltaic or photovoltaic cell. In an embodiment, the power cell further comprises a hydrogen laser of the present disclosure.

In an embodiment, the photons perform at least one of propagating to and becoming incident on the photovoltaic cell and exiting and illuminating the photovoltaic cell from the semi-transparent mirror of the laser cavity. Intrinsic and laser power can be converted to electricity using photovoltaic cells described in the following references to photovoltaic cells for converting laser power to electrical power, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety: L.C.Olsen, D.A.Huber, G.Dunham, F.W.Addis, "high efficiency monolithic GaAs linear cells", in Conf.Rec.22nd IEEE Photoresist specialities Conf., Las Vegas, NV, Vol.I, 10 months 1991, page 419 and 424; lowe, G.A.Landis, P.Jenkins, "Response of photonic cells to pulsed laser," IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, Vol.42, No. 4, 1995, p.744-751; jain, G.A.Landis, "transfer response of gallium sensing and silicon cells under laser pulse", Solid-State Electronics, Vol.4, No. 11, 1998, p.1981-; P.A.Iles, "Non-linear photovoltaic cells", in Conf.Rec.21st IEEEPhotonovatic specialties Conf., Kissimmee, FL, Vol.I, 1990, 5 months, page 420-423.

In an embodiment of at least one of an optical and laser power converter, using beam forming optics, at least one of the beam and the laser beam is reduced and spread over a larger area, as described in l.c. olsen, d.a. huber, g.dunham, f.w. addis, "High efficiency monocrystalline GaAs solar cells", in conf.rec.22nd ieee photonic scientific standards conf, Las Vegas, NV, volume I, 10 months 1991, page 419-424, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. The beam forming optics may be a lens or a diffuser. The cell 1 may also include a mirror or lens to direct light onto the photovoltaic device. Mirrors may also be present on the cell walls to increase the path length of, for example, hydrogen Lyman series emission (hydrogen Lyman series emission) to maintain an excited state that is further excitable by collisions or photons.

In another embodiment, spontaneous or stimulated emission from a water-based fuel plasma is converted into electrical power using a photovoltaic device. Conversion of at least one of spontaneous and stimulated emission into electricity can be achieved with significant power density and efficiency using existing Photovoltaic (PV) cells with band gaps matched to the wavelength. The photovoltaic cells of the power converter of the present disclosure that are responsive to ultraviolet and extreme ultraviolet light include conventional cells that are radiation hardened. Because of the higher energy of the photons, potentially higher efficiencies can be achieved than those that convert lower energy photons. The reinforcement may be achieved by a protective coating, such as an atomic layer of platinum or other noble metal. In embodiments, the photovoltaic device has a high band gap (such as a photovoltaic device comprising gallium nitride).

In embodiments using photovoltaic devices for power conversion, high energy light may be converted to low energy light by the phosphor. In embodiments, the phosphor is a gas that efficiently converts short wavelength light of the cell to long wavelength light, and the photovoltaic device is more responsive to long wavelength light. The percentage of fluorescent gas can be in any desired range (such as in at least one of the ranges of approximately 0.1% to 99.9%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 5%). The fluorescent gas may be an inert gas (such as a noble gas) or a gas of an element or compound that becomes gaseous due to detonation (such as, for example, an alkali, alkaline earth, or transition metal). In an embodiment, the argon comprises argon candle (candle) used in explosives to emit bright light in the visible range for photovoltaic conversion to electricity. In an embodiment, the phosphor is coated on the transparent walls of the cell 1 such that the photons emitted by the excited phosphor more closely match the peak wavelength efficiency of the photovoltaic device that may surround the phosphor coated walls. In an embodiment, an excimer-forming species is added to the plasma to absorb power due to formation of hydrinos and to contribute to at least one of a large population and an inverted population of excited states. In embodiments, the solid fuel or the added gas may comprise a halogen. At least one noble metal, such as helium, neon, and argon, may be added such that excimers are formed. Power can be extracted by excimer spontaneous or laser emission. The optical power is incident on the photovoltaic converter 6 and converted into electricity.

In this exemplary embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell power generation system includes a photovoltaic power converter configured to collect plasma photons generated by the fuel ignition reaction and convert them into usable energy. In some embodiments, high conversion efficiency may be desired. The reactor may discharge plasma in multiple directions (e.g., at least two directions), and the reaction radius may be on the order of approximately a few millimeters to a few meters (e.g., about 1mm to about 25 cm). Additionally, the spectrum of the plasma generated as a result of fuel ignition may be similar to that of the solar generated plasma and/or may include additional short wavelength radiation.

According to the Wien displacement law A. Beiser, Concepts of Modern Physics, fourth edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1978, p.329-]T-6000K wavelength λ with maximum energy density of black body_maxIs that

Stefan-Boltzmann law [ A. Beiser, Concepts of model Physics, fourth edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1978, p.329-]The power R radiated by the object per unit area is equal to the emissivity e multiplied by the Stefan-Boltzmann constant sigma multiplied by the fourth power T of the temperature⁴。

R＝eσT⁴(197)

For black body σ ═ 5.67X 10^-8Wm^-2K^-4The emissivity e is 1, and the measured blackbody temperature is 6000K.The power radiated per unit area of the ignited solid fuel is therefore

R＝(1)(σ＝5.67X 10^-8Wm^-2K^-4)(6000K)⁴＝7.34X10⁷Wm^-2(198)

Available R and explosive energy E through 1000J_blastAnd 20X10^-6The quotient of the explosion time τ of s gives the typical power P of the explosion_blast

Thus, at an average black body temperature of 6000K, the average radius of the expanding plasma sphere is 23 cm. The total number N of photons in a volume of radius 23cm is the total number N of photons in a volume of radius 23cm, according to Beiser [ A. Beiser, Concepts of model Physics, fourth edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1978, p 329)

According to Beiser [1]Average energy of photonsIs that

Additional plasma temperatures, plasma emittance, power radiated per unit area, plasma radius, total number of photons, and average energy of photons are within the scope of the present disclosure. In an embodiment, the plasma temperature is in a range of at least one of approximately 500K to 100,000K, 1000K to10,000K, and 5000K to10,000K. In an embodiment, the plasma emissivity is in a range of at least one of about 0.01 to1, 0.1 to1, and 0.5 to 1. In factIn one embodiment, the power radiated per unit area according to equation (198) is about 10³Wm^-2To10¹⁰Wm^-2、10⁴Wm^-2To10⁹Wm^-2And 10⁵Wm^-2To10⁸Wm^-2At least one range of (a). In an embodiment, the energy E emitted by the explosion and the power R radiated per unit area are determined according to the energy E_blastExplosive power P given by quotient of explosion time tau_blastThe radius and total number of photons are given by equations (199) and (200), respectively. In an embodiment, the energy is in a range of at least one of about 10J to 1GJ, 100J to 100MJ, 200J to10 MJ, 300J to 1MJ, 400J to 100kJ, 500J to10 kJ, and 1kJ to 5 kJ. In an embodiment, the time is in at least one range of at least about 100ns to 100s, 1 μ s to10 s, 10 μ s to 1s, 100 μ s to 100ms, 100 μ s to10 ms, and 100 μ s to1 ms. In an embodiment, the power is in at least one range of approximately 100W to 100GW, 1kW to10 GW,10kW to 1GW,10kW to 100MW, and 100kW to 100 MW. In an embodiment, the radius is in at least one range of about 100m to10 m, 1mm to 1m, 10mm to 100cm, and 10cm to 50 cm. In an embodiment, the total number of photons according to equation (200) is about 10⁷To10²⁵、10¹⁰To10²²、10¹³To10²¹、10¹⁴To10¹⁸At least one range of (b). In an embodiment, the average energy of the photons according to equation (201) is in at least one of a range of about 0.1eV to 100eV, 0.5eV to10 eV, and 0.5eV and 3 eV.

As shown in fig. 2A, one or more photovoltaic power converters 6 may be oriented (e.g., angled or spaced apart) relative to the plasma reaction to receive photons generated by the reaction. For example, a photovoltaic power converter 6 may be placed in the flow path for receiving plasma photons. In embodiments where two or more plasma streams are injected in different axial directions, a photovoltaic power converter 6 may be placed in the flow path of each photon stream to increase the number of photons collected. In some embodiments, the photovoltaic power converter 6 may convert photons directly into electrical energy, while in other embodiments, the photovoltaic power converter 6 may convert photons into thermal energy, and then the thermal-electrical power converter may convert the thermal energy into electrical energy.

The photovoltaic power converter 6 includes a plurality of photovoltaic cells configured to receive, collect, and convert photons during a plasma reaction. The plurality of photovoltaic cells may be arranged in one or more modules. Multiple modules may be packaged and interconnected with each other, e.g., in series, in parallel, or in any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a plurality of photovoltaic modules may be interconnected, forming an array of photovoltaic modules (i.e., a photovoltaic array). For example, a photovoltaic array may include a plurality of photovoltaic modules connected in strings of photovoltaic modules, which may be further grouped into sub-arrays of photovoltaic modules. While individual photovoltaic cells can generate only a few watts of power or less than 1 watt of power, connecting individual cells into a module can generate more power, forming an even larger unit (like an array) can allow even more power to be generated.

The photovoltaic array and/or module may be mounted on a support structure for orienting the cells in a direction that emits plasmonic photons. The exemplary photovoltaic power converter 6 may also include a tracker for adjusting the array to reduce the angle of incidence between the exiting plasma and the photovoltaic cell to optimize photon collection. These trackers may respond to any shift in the path of the ejected plasma photons to maintain efficiency. In some embodiments, photovoltaic power converter 6 may include one or more Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) devices for sampling the output of the photovoltaic cells and applying the correct resistance to obtain maximum power based on varying plasma emission conditions.

Crystalline silicon photovoltaic cells are a common type of photovoltaic cell. Crystalline silicon cells may include, for example, single crystal cells, polycrystalline cells, and edge-defined film donor tape silicon and wafer-defined film growth cells. They comprise silicon atoms bonded to each other to form a crystal lattice. Photovoltaic semiconductors include an n-layer and a p-layer with a junction (referred to as a p/n junction) therebetween. The n-type silicon layer has excess electrons and the p-type silicon layer has excess holes, and the p/n junction where they join forms an electric field. When photons are absorbed by the photovoltaic cell, electrons may be free within the lattice structure. Excess electrons can move from the n-type side to the p-type side, forming positive charges along the n-layer and negative charges along the p-type. These free electrons dissociate, creating an electric field at the p/n junction.

In crystalline silicon photovoltaic cells, doping is used to introduce atoms of another element into the silicon crystal to alter its electrical properties and form p-and n-layers. The introduced elements ("dopants") typically have either 1 more valence electrons than the base material (to form an n-layer) or 1 less valence electrons than the base material (to form a p-layer). For example, in a silicon-based cell, the dopant typically has trivalent or pentavalent electrons (1 more or 1 less valent than the tetravalent electrons that silicon has). Typically, dopants are applied to thin layers on top and bottom regions of a substrate to create p/n junctions with specific band gap energies. For example, a silicon substrate may be doped with phosphorus (with pentavalent electrons) on the top side to form an n-layer and boron (with trivalent electrons) on the bottom side to form a p-layer.

Plasmonic photons that strike the photovoltaic cell can be reflected, can be absorbed, or can pass therethrough. Only the absorbed photons generate power. The bandgap energy is the amount of energy required to cause an electron to break free of the lattice. If the photons have energies less than the bandgap, the photons may not be collected. Alternatively, if a photon has an energy greater than the bandgap, the extra energy may be lost due to relaxation, which may convert the extra energy into heat, thereby increasing the blackbody loss. Crystalline silicon has a band gap energy of approximately 1.1eV, and typical photovoltaic materials can have a band gap energy from approximately 1.0eV to approximately 2.0 eV. For example, gallium arsenide has a bandgap of approximately 1.43eV, and aluminum gallium arsenide has a bandgap of approximately 1.7 eV.

Thus, some photovoltaic cells may be formed from multiple types of materials. Batteries made from a variety of materials can have multiple bandgaps and therefore can respond to multiple wavelengths of light. As a result, batteries constructed of multiple different materials (i.e., multijunction batteries) may be more efficient because they are capable of generating current at multiple wavelengths, harvesting and converting energy that would otherwise be lost. Photovoltaic cells can be formed from a variety of different materials or combinations of materials, which can be selected and/or combined based on the characteristics of the materials and/or the efficiency requirements of a given application. Different materials may have different crystallinity, absorption characteristics, minority carrier lifetime, mobility, and/or manufacturing considerations. For example, a strong absorption coefficient, a high minority carrier lifetime, and/or a high mobility may provide better performance characteristics.

Exemplary materials may include, for example, silicon, including monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, or amorphous silicon. Polycrystalline thin film layers may be used, including, for example, copper indium diselenide, cadmium telluride, or thin film silicon. Single crystal thin films may also be used, including, for example, gallium arsenide, germanium, or indium phosphide wafers, silicon, or alloys thereof. Crystallinity indicates how the atoms of a crystal structure are ordered, and materials can result in various types of crystallinity, including, for example, single crystal, polycrystalline, and amorphous.

As described above, the photovoltaic cell may be composed of a single material, or may be composed of a plurality of materials. Homojunction devices include a single material or materials with similar properties. If different materials having similar properties are used, the materials may have substantially equal bandgaps. Because the number of valence electrons may differ for different materials, different dopants may be used for the n-type and p-type of each material for the reasons described above. The crystalline silicon embodiments discussed above are examples of homojunction devices. To increase the efficiency of homojunction photovoltaic cells, the depth of the p/n junction of the material used, the amount of dopant, the distribution of dopant, the crystallinity, and/or the purity may be varied.

Heterojunction devices comprise different materials with unequal band gaps, e.g., two layers of dissimilar crystallinity semiconductors. In a heterojunction device, the top layer is a window, i.e. a transparent material with a high band gap, while the lower layer has a low band gap that absorbs light. Because different materials can be used for the p-layer and the n-layer of different materials, a wider variety of dopants can be used to form heterojunction devices, potentially increasing the ability to optimize photovoltaic cells. Exemplary heterojunction devices include copper indium diselenide cells in which a p/n junction is formed by cadmium sulfide and copper indium diselenide contacts.

A p-i-n device or an n-i-p device includes an intermediate undoped (intrinsic or i-type) layer sandwiched between a p-layer and an n-layer, and the electric field formed along the p/n junction can be spread over a wide area. An exemplary p-i-n device includes an amorphous silicon photovoltaic cell comprised of a silicon p-layer, an intrinsic silicon intermediate layer, and a silicon n-layer.

Multi-junction devices include p/n junctions made of different semiconductor materials. These may include series, triple, quadruple, quintuplet, hexa, or n-junction cells. A multi-junction device is formed of individual cells of different band gaps stacked one on top of the other. Each bandgap generates a current in response to light of a different wavelength. The top layer to which the photons first adhere has the largest gap. Photons that are not absorbed by the top layer are sent to the next layer and so on until the remaining photons reach the bottom layer with the smallest bandgap. A multi-junction device may include one or more p/n junctions, window layers (to reduce surface recombination rates), tunnel junctions (to provide low resistance and optionally low loss connections between subcells), back surface field layers (to reduce scattering of carriers towards the tunnel junctions), radiation-resistant coatings, metal contacts (e.g., aluminum), or any combination thereof.

To form a multi-junction photovoltaic cell, individual cells can be fabricated independently and then mechanically stacked one on top of the other. Alternatively, one cell can be fabricated first, and then layers of a second cell can be grown (via epitaxy, e.g., liquid phase, organometallic vapor phase, molecular beam, metal-organic molecular beam, atomic layer, hydride vapor phase, chemical vapor deposition) or deposited on the first layer. Multi-junction photovoltaic cells typically use III-V semiconductor materials including, for example, aluminum gallium arsenide, indium gallium phosphide, aluminum indium arsenide, aluminum indium antimonide, gallium arsenic nitride, gallium arsenic phosphide, gallium arsenic antimonide, aluminum gallium nitride, lithium gallium phosphide, indium gallium nitride, indium arsenic antimonide, indium gallium antimonide, aluminum gallium indium phosphide, aluminum gallium arsenic phosphide, indium gallium arsenic antimonide, indium antimony phosphide, aluminum indium arsenic phosphide, aluminum gallium arsenic nitride, indium aluminum arsenic nitride, gallium arsenic nitride, arsenic antimonide, arsenic gallium indium antimonide nitride, and gallium indium arsenide phosphide. Alternatively or additionally, group II-IV alloys, group IV, group II-IV and/or group III-V crystals, polycrystals, or polycrystalline combinations of amorphous semiconductors may be used. For example, the multi-junction device material may include, for example, amorphous silicon, copper indium diselenide, copper indium gallium diselenide, gallium arsenide, gallium indium phosphide, cadmium sulfide, cadmium antimonide, or zinc antimonide. An exemplary multi-junction cell is a cadmium antimonide cell having a p-layer of cadmium sulfide, an i-layer of cadmium antimonide, and an n-layer of zinc antimonide. Another exemplary multi-junction cell may include a stack of GaInP, GaInAs, and Ge. Suitable multi-junction devices may include, for example, lattice matched, standing-deformed, and inverted-deformed multi-junction devices.

In a multi-junction photovoltaic cell, the materials may also be selected based on lattice matching and/or current matching. The lattice constants of the different materials may be the same or may be closely matched for optimal growth and crystal quality. The more lattice structures that are mismatched, the more growth defects and crystal defects can occur, resulting in reduced efficiency due to deterioration of electrical characteristics. Because the materials are layered according to band gap reduction, an appropriate band gap (and thus an appropriate material) can be selected such that the design spectrum balances the current generation in each subcell to achieve current matching. Suitable fabrication techniques for achieving lattice matching may include, for example, metal-organic chemical vapor deposition or molecular beam epitaxy. Lattice-matching structures are often formed from ultra-thin layers of single crystal semiconductors (e.g., III-V semiconductors). However, in some embodiments, lattice mismatched devices may also achieve high efficiency. For example, some mismatched photovoltaic cells may include step and buffer layers that form III-V photovoltaic devices that exhibit similar or higher efficiencies than lattice matched devices. Exemplary mismatched photovoltaic cells include InGaP/GaAs PV cells mechanically stacked on top of electrically independent silicon cells and Ga/InP/CaInAs/Ge cells.

Triple junction photovoltaic cells have been shown to provide current matching of all three subcells, resulting in an arrangement with a more efficient bandgap combination. For example, it can also be usedBy over-upgrading the material quality of the lattice-mismatched layer and/or forming a highly relaxed buffer structure (such as Ga) between the substrate and the intermediate cell_1-yIn_yAs buffer structure) to increase efficiency. An exemplary multi-junction photovoltaic cell includes: triple junction photovoltaic cells (such as those having the structure GaInP/GaInAs/Ge); a four junction photovoltaic cell (such as a four junction photovoltaic cell with the structure GaInP/AlGaInAs/GaInAs/Ge); a five junction photovoltaic cell (such as one with the structure AlGaInP/GaInP/AlGaInAs/GaInAs/Ge or AlGaInP/AlGaInAs/GaInAs/Ge); a six junction photovoltaic cell (such as a six junction photovoltaic cell with the structure GaInP/AlGaInAs/GaInAs/Ge). Any suitable number and/or type of materials may be used to produce the exemplary photovoltaic cells of the present disclosure.

Inverted metamorphic multijunction cells (IMM cells or inverted lattice mismatched cells) are formed by growing junctions in an ascending order of lattice mismatch relative to the substrate. This reduces the propagation of strain-induced defects in the device structure. Thus, the highest bandgap material is grown first, leaving a surface substantially free of strain and defects on which the next highest bandgap material can be grown. And finally, growing the lowest band gap material to enable the strain-induced defects of the lowest band gap material to have small influence on other junctions. Growing the junctions from highest to lowest band gap is the reverse of a standard multi-junction cell (or vertical cell). To grow the junctions in this reverse order, the substrate must be removed to allow photons to enter the highest bandgap layer. The step buffer layer may also be included between mismatched junctions to relieve strain and confine dislocations.

Suitable photovoltaic cells may include thin film cells made by depositing one or more thin layers (e.g., a few nanometers to a few tens of nanometers) on a substrate. Suitable substrates may comprise, for example, glass, polymers, metals, or combinations thereof. The structure of these materials may not be crystalline. Some common thin film batteries may contain amorphous and microcrystalline laminated silicon, protocrystalline silicon, nanocrystalline silicon, black silicon, cadmium antimonide, copper indium selenide, copper indium gallium selenide, dye sensitized, or other organic photovoltaic cells. An exemplary amorphous silicon solar cell is a multi-junction thin film silicon cell, which may include a silicon cell having a silicon layer applied to a substrate and a microcrystalline silicon layer. Dye-sensitized cells use photo-electrochemical solar cells formed of a semiconductor structure sandwiched between a photosensitizing anode and an electrolyte. Organic photovoltaic cells may include organic or polymeric materials, for example, organic polymers or small organic molecules. Exemplary photovoltaic cells may also include string/ribbon silicon, including materials similar to the crystalline silicon cells discussed above. These cells may be derived from molten silicon, which may result in higher conversion efficiency than cast silicon in some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the power generation system may include one or more prisms or optical filters between the plasma reaction and the photovoltaic cell to change the wavelength of the light to more closely match the bandgap of the photovoltaic material. The types of filters may include long pass, short pass, or band pass filters. Exemplary optical filters may include absorptive filters, dichroic filters, notch filters, monochromatic filters, infrared filters, guided light mode resonance filters, or metal mesh filters, or any suitable combination thereof.

An exemplary photovoltaic power generation system of the present disclosure may include a plurality of other suitable components, for example, one or more of an AC-DC power converter (such as an inverter or micro-inverter), a power conditioning unit, a temperature sensor, a battery, a charger, a system and or battery controller, a heat sink, a heat exchanger, a bus bar, a smart meter for measuring energy production, a one-way and/or two-way meter, (e.g., for frequency or voltage) monitor, a condenser (e.g., a refractive lens like a fresnel lens, a reflective dish like a parabolic mirror or cassegrain telescope, or light-guiding optics), or any suitable combination thereof. The photovoltaic system may also include balance of system (BOS) hardware, including, for example, wiring, fuses, over-current, surge protection and disconnect devices, and/or other suitable power processing equipment.

The power generated by the photovoltaic power converter 6 may be stored and/or buffered with a storage device, such as a battery. Other storage devices may include, for example, capacitors, high current transformers, batteries, flywheels, or any other suitable power storage device or combination thereof. The power generation system may also include a charge controller, for example, to avoid damage to the battery due to overcharging or discharging, or to optimize the fabrication of the battery or module by MPPT. A battery may be included in the power generation system to store electrical energy generated by the photovoltaic power converter 6 and/or to supply energy to electrical loads on demand. One or more batteries may also be included to operate the photovoltaic array near its maximum power point, to supply an electrical load with a regulated voltage, and/or to supply a surge current to the electrical load and inverter. A battery charge controller may also be used to protect the battery from overcharging and/or overdischarging.

In some embodiments, the photovoltaic power converter 6 may include a monitoring system. These systems can detect photovoltaic cell breakdown and/or optimize operation of the photovoltaic cell. The monitoring system may also be configured to detect anomalies in the system or mismatches between the generated power and load demand. The monitoring system may provide a warning signal indicating a possible problem and/or may be operably coupled to a controller, which may be configured to reduce power generation or shut down the photovoltaic power converter 6, or the entire plasma power generation system, if the detected condition falls above or below a certain threshold level. These monitoring systems may include one or more sensors for detecting one or more parameters of the photovoltaic power converter 6. Exemplary parameters detected may include temperature, pressure, current, frequency, watt output, brightness, efficiency, or any suitable combination thereof.

The power generation system may also include one or more concentrators to focus the emitted photons onto a smaller area of the photovoltaic cell. Systems equipped with Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) technology may be able to reduce the size of the photovoltaic cell by focusing photons onto a smaller area. The condenser may include one or more optical components (e.g., mirrors and/or lenses) oriented to condense the photons and may also include one or more trackers to achieve a desired level of condensation. In some embodiments, an active or passive cooling system may be used with the CPV device, while in other embodiments, a cooling system may not be required. Photovoltaic systems equipped with CPV technology may be able to achieve higher efficiencies than standard photovoltaic systems. In some embodiments, the CPV system can be used in conjunction with a multi-junction photovoltaic cell.

In other embodiments, Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) technology may be used to focus photons onto a smaller area of a photovoltaic cell to convert the concentrated photons into heat. The concentrator may include one or more optical components (e.g., mirrors and/or lenses) oriented in a suitable arrangement (e.g., parabolic reflective trough or dish) relative to each other and a central receiver for generating heat. Heat, often in the form of steam, may be used directly or may be converted into mechanical or electrical power using any suitable converter or combination of converters that may be connected to an electrical power generator, including for example heat engines such as steam or gas turbines and generators, Rankine or Brayton cycle engines, Stirling engines, etc. Alternatively or additionally, heat may be used to power the thermochemical reaction. In some exemplary embodiments, the parabolic reflective trough may use a long, rectangular, curved mirror to focus the photons to a tube extending down the center of the trough. The tube may contain a fluid that is easily warmed up, which transforms into steam when heated. Embodiments utilizing CSP technology may also include one or more trackers for achieving a desired level of concentration.

It should be noted that the heat as well as the plasma may be generated by igniting the fuel to generate the plasma. In embodiments utilizing CSP technology, in addition to the heat generated by the photovoltaic cell, this heat may be used directly or may be converted into mechanical or electrical power using any suitable converter or combination of converters (including, for example, a heat engine such as a steam or gas turbine and generator, a Rankine or Brayton cycle engine, or a Stirling engine). In embodiments where photonic energy is converted directly to electrical energy, this heat may be dissipated, for example, by using a cooling system, or may be converted to electrical energy in parallel with the occurrence of the photonic-to-electrical conversion. For example, the power generation system may include a photon-to-electric power converter and a thermal-to-electric converter. For power conversion, each cell may interact with any converter of thermal or plasma-mechanical or electrical power, such as, for example, a heat engine, a steam or gas turbine system, a Stirling engine, or a thermionic or thermoelectric converter.

As discussed above, the power generation system may also include a temperature regulation system. For example, the cooling system may carry away heat generated by the photovoltaic system and/or by igniting the fuel to form a plasma. Exemplary cooling systems may include a heat exchanger or a radiator. In some embodiments, a portion of the heat may be transferred to other components in the power generation system (such as, for example, regeneration system 14, a removal system, an electrode configured to propagate a chemical reaction required to regenerate the fuel with plasma reaction products, and/or to provide power for igniting the fuel to form a plasma).

Electrical energy can be regulated once electrical power is generated directly from the photovoltaic cells or first thermal energy and then electrical energy is generated. The power generation system may include one or more output power controllers/regulators 7, the output power controllers/regulators 7 being operably coupled to the photovoltaic power converter 6 to alter the quality of the generated power so that it is compatible with internal or external electrical load devices and/or storage devices that are the destination of the power transfer. The quality of the generated power may include, for example, current, voltage, frequency, noise/coherence, or any other suitable quality. The output power controller/regulator 7 may be adjustable to vary the regulation of power, for example, to reflect changes in the electrical load device or the power generated by the system. The regulator may perform one or more functions including, for example, voltage regulation, power factor correction, noise suppression, or transient impulse protection. In an exemplary embodiment, the output power regulator may regulate the power generated by the power generation system to a desired waveform (e.g., 60Hz AC power) to maintain a more constant voltage for different loads.

Once regulated, the generated power may be delivered from the controller/regulator 7 to a load and/or storage device through output terminals 9. Any suitable number and arrangement of controller/regulators and output power terminals may be incorporated into the power generation system.

In some embodiments, as discussed above, a portion of the power output at power output terminal 9 may be used to provide power to the power supply, for example, to provide approximately 5-10V, 10,000 and 40,000A DC power. The photovoltaic power converter can output low-voltage and high-current DC power. In some embodiments, the fuel-generating plasma may be initiated to ignite using a super capacitor or battery by supplying power for initiating ignition, such that power for subsequent ignition is provided through the output power regulator, which in turn may be provided by the photovoltaic power converter 6. The particular components and arrangement of the photovoltaic system will depend, at least in part, on how the energy will be used once converted.

The photovoltaic power converter 6 and the power generation system may be independent, utility interactive, or connectable to the grid. The photovoltaic system may be interconnected to the utility grid, grounded, or operated independently of the utility grid, and may be connected to other energy sources and/or energy storage systems. For example, in some embodiments, the photovoltaic power converter 6 may be connected to a power grid or other load, but may also be capable of storing energy or actively supplying energy to the plasma reaction system. The photovoltaic systems of the present disclosure may be designed to provide DC and/or AC power services.

Grid-connected photovoltaic systems typically include inverters to convert and condition the DC power generated by the photovoltaic array to AC power consistent with the voltage and power quality requirements of the grid. The positive and negative terminals of the photovoltaic module and/or array may be electrically connected to the inverter so as to be integral with the grid. The inverter may also be configured to automatically stop power flow to the grid when the utility grid is not being supplied energy. In this arrangement, for example, at the distribution panel, there may be a bi-directional interface between the AC output circuits of the photovoltaic system and the electrical utility network, as shown in fig. 3. This may allow, for example, AC power generated by the photovoltaic system to supply the field electrical load or back to the grid when the photovoltaic system output is greater than the field load demand. When the electrical load is greater than the photovoltaic system output, the power balance required by the load may be received from the grid. In many grid-connected photovoltaic systems, this safety feature is needed to prevent the photovoltaic system from continuing to operate and feeding back into the grid when the grid is shut down (e.g., for maintenance or repair).

In grid-connected embodiments, photons may be converted to electrical energy, as discussed above. All of the generated electrical power may be supplied to the grid, or power may be supplied to one or more of the grid or an external load, a storage device within the power generation system, other active components within the power generation system, or any suitable component thereof. Additionally, power may be supplied to different locations depending on a number of factors (e.g., operating conditions, power requirements, environmental conditions, etc.).

In some embodiments, the grid-connected system may include an energy storage device, while in other embodiments, the grid-connected system may not include an energy storage device. If included in the grid system, the storage device may be, for example, a capacitor, a high current transformer, a battery, a flywheel, or any other suitable power storage device or combination thereof. A storage device may be included in, for example, the power generation system to store power generated by the photovoltaic power converter 6 for later use by the system, for later use by another device (e.g., an external load), or to inhibit any intermittency. The power generation system and photovoltaic power converter 6 may be configured to recharge or fill the storage device, and then once filled, remove the storage device and connect it to a separate device to provide power. The power generation system may optionally include a storage device configured to accept and store some of the power for subsequent use by, for example, the power generation system as a backup power source. Additionally, in grid-connected embodiments, the power generation system may receive power from the grid, as an addition to or instead of providing power to the grid, as shown in FIG. 4.

In a separate embodiment, the photovoltaic power generation system may be designed to operate independently of the electrical grid. These systems may be designed and configured to supply AC, DC, or both AC and DC power to an electrical load. The stand-alone embodiment may be powered solely by the photovoltaic array, or may be supplemented with an auxiliary power source to form a photovoltaic hybrid system, as shown in fig. 4. For a stand-alone system, instead of being connected to the grid, a hybrid system may include a power generator (e.g., an engine generator) as an auxiliary power source. In a direct coupling system, the DC output of a photovoltaic module or array may be coupled directly to a DC load. Thus, some directly coupled systems may not include an electrical energy storage device (e.g., a battery), as shown in fig. 5. Alternatively, as shown in fig. 6A, the directly coupled system may include an electrical energy storage device, for example, to store power generated by the photovoltaic power converter 6, for the system, for subsequent use by an external load, or to inhibit any intermittency. In a directly coupled system, the impedance of the electrical load may need to be matched to the maximum power output of the photovoltaic array for optimal performance and may include suitable conditioning components. In some embodiments, MPPT may be used between the array and the load to facilitate better utilization of the available maximum power output of the array. In other embodiments where both DC and AC loads are powered, or only AC loads are powered, the independent system may include an energy storage device (e.g., a battery), as shown in fig. 6A and 6B.

In a separate embodiment, the plasmon photons can be converted to electrical energy, as discussed above. All of the generated electrical power may be supplied to one or more of the storage devices, external loads, other components within the power generation system, or any suitable combination thereof, exemplary embodiments of which are depicted in fig. 7 and 8.

Exemplary storage devices may include, for example, capacitors, high current transformers, batteries, flywheels, or any suitable power storage device or combination thereof. A storage device may be included in, for example, the power generation system to store power generated by the photovoltaic power converter 6 for later use by the system, for later use by another device (e.g., an external load), or to inhibit any intermittency. The power generation system and photovoltaic power converter 6 may be configured to recharge or fill the storage device, and then once filled, remove the storage device and connect it to a separate device to provide power. The power generation system may optionally include a storage device configured to accept and store some of the system generated power for subsequent use by, for example, the power generation system as a backup power source.

Any suitable photovoltaic power converter for converting photons to electricity or thermal energy, such as the photovoltaic power converters described above, may be used in conjunction with any of the suitable plasma-generating power generation systems described herein. For example, any suitable single crystal, polycrystalline, amorphous, string/band silicon, multi-junction (including, for example, inverted, upright, lattice mismatched, lattice matched, group III-V), homojunction, heterojunction, p-i-n, thin film, dye sensitized, or organic photovoltaic cell, or combination of photovoltaic cells, may be included in the exemplary plasma power generation systems of the present disclosure.

For example, the power generation system may include: a plurality of electrodes 1002 configured to deliver power to a fuel 1003 to ignite the fuel, generating a plasma; a power source 1004 configured to deliver electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes 1002; at least one photovoltaic power converter 1006 arranged to receive at least a plurality of plasmonic photons, as shown in the embodiment of fig. 9. This system may further comprise: an output power regulator 1007 operably coupled (via power connector 1008 of fig. 12) to the photovoltaic power converter 1006; an output power terminal 1009 which can be coupled to an output power regulator 1007 as shown in the embodiment of fig. 10.

Another exemplary power generation system may include at least about 2,000A/cm²Or at least about 5,000kW of a power source 1004 and a plurality of electrodes 1002 electrically coupled with the power source 1004. The system may also include a fuel loading region 1017 configured to receive solid fuel 1003, and the plurality of electrodes 1002 may be configured to transfer electrical power toSolid fuel 1003 to generate plasma. The system may also include a photovoltaic power converter 1006 configured to receive the plurality of plasma photons.

In one embodiment, power generation system 1020 may include a system configured to deliver at least about 5,000kW or at least about 2,000A/cm²Power source 1004. The plurality of electrodes 1002 may be configured to at least partially surround a fuel 1003, and the electrodes 1002 may be electrically connected to a power source 1004 and configured to receive an electrical current for igniting the fuel 1003. At least one of the plurality of electrodes may be movable. The power generation system may also include a transfer mechanism 1005 for moving the fuel and a photovoltaic power converter 1006 configured to convert photons produced by igniting the fuel into a different form of power, as shown in the exemplary embodiments of fig. 11 and 12.

In another exemplary embodiment, the power generation system 1020 may include a system configured to deliver at least about 5,000kW or at least about 2,000A/cm²Power source 1004. The power source may be electrically connected to the plurality of electrodes 1002, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes 1002 may include a compression mechanism 1002a, as shown in the embodiments of fig. 9 and 10. The plurality of electrodes 1002 may surround a fuel loading region 1017, the fuel loading region 1017 configured to receive fuel such that the compression mechanism of at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel loading region. The electrode 1002a may be configured to supply electrical power to the fuel 1003 received in the fuel loading region 1017 to ignite the fuel. The power generation system 1020 may also include a transfer mechanism 1005 (fig. 10) for moving the fuel 1003 into the fuel loading region 1017 and a photovoltaic power converter 1006 configured to convert photons produced by igniting the fuel into a non-photon form of power.

In one embodiment, the power generation system 1020 may include a plurality of electrodes 1002 surrounding a fuel loading region 1017. The electrode 1002 may be configured to ignite a fuel 1003 located in a fuel loading region 1017. The power generation system may further include: a transfer mechanism 1005 for moving the fuel 1003 into the fuel loading region 1017; a photovoltaic power converter 1006 configured to convert photons generated by igniting the fuel into non-photon form of power; a removal system 1013 for removing by-products of the ignited fuel; a regeneration system 1014 operably coupled to the removal system 1013 for recycling the removed byproducts of the ignition fuel to the recycled fuel, as shown in the embodiments of fig. 11 and 12.

Other exemplary power generation systems according to the present disclosure may include a system configured to deliver at least about 5,000kW or at least about 2,000A/cm²Power source 1004. The spaced apart electrodes 1002 may be electrically connected to a power source 1004 and may surround a fuel loading region 1017. The fuel loading region 1017 may be configured to receive fuel 1003, and the plurality of electrodes 1002 may be configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel 1003 when the fuel is received in the fuel loading region 1017. The power generation system may further include: a transfer mechanism 1005 for moving fuel into the fuel loading region 1017; a photovoltaic power converter 1006 configured to convert a plurality of photons generated by ignition of the fuel into a non-photonic form of power; a sensor 1025 configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; a controller 1030 configured to control at least processes associated with the power generation system, as shown in fig. 11 and 12.

In another embodiment, a power generation system may include a system configured to deliver at least about 5,000kW or at least about 2,000A/cm²A power source 1004 and a plurality of spaced apart electrodes 1002 electrically connected to the power source 1004. The plurality of electrodes 1002 may surround the fuel loading region 1017 and may be configured to supply electrical power to the fuel 1003 to ignite the fuel 1003 when the fuel is received in the fuel loading region 1017. The pressure in the fuel loading region 1017 may be a partial vacuum. The power generation system may further include: a transfer mechanism 1005 for moving the fuel 1003 into the fuel loading region 1017; a photovoltaic power converter 1006 configured to convert a plurality of photons generated by the ignition of the fuel into a non-photonic form of power.

The example photovoltaic power generation systems described herein may operate interconnected with or independent of a utility grid, and may be connected with other energy sources and/or energy storage systems. They may also include any suitable components, including, for example, one or more of an AC-DC power converter (such as an inverter or micro-inverter), a power conditioning unit, a temperature sensor, a battery, a charger, a system and/or battery controller, a condenser, a cooling system 1011/1012 (e.g., a heat sink, a heat exchanger 1010), a bus bar, a smart meter for measuring energy production, a one-way and/or two-way meter, (e.g., for frequency or voltage) a monitor, a condenser (e.g., a refractive lens like a fresnel lens, a reflective dish like a parabolic mirror or a cassegrain telescope, or light-guiding optics), or any suitable combination thereof. The photovoltaic system may also include balance of system (BOS) hardware, including, for example, wiring, fuses, over-current, surge protection and disconnect devices, and/or other suitable power processing equipment.

In addition, the photovoltaic power generation system places the photovoltaic cell in proximity to the plasma-generating ignition reaction. Thus, an exemplary power generation system may include any suitable cleaning system, as described above, to remove any debris or residue that may accumulate on the photovoltaic cells and/or other components that may prevent some of the photons from being absorbed by or damaging the photovoltaic device.

Additionally, the photovoltaic power converter may be mounted to capture emitted photons while reducing the effect of any shock waves or particles that may be expelled during plasma-generated explosions. For example, the photovoltaic device may be placed on or around a baffle configured to disperse the shock waves. The thin film photovoltaic cell can be applied to a more resilient substrate (e.g., glass, polymer, metal, or combinations thereof). In some embodiments, the photovoltaic power converter may be movably mounted and the tracker or other sensor may adjust the angle and/or positioning of the photovoltaic device based on the explosion parameters to reduce damage due to the reaction. In some embodiments, a transparent panel or mesh sheet may be placed in front of the photovoltaic device to act as a bumper and/or baffle. The photovoltaic device can include a protective coating. The cooling system may dissipate and/or redirect heat generated during the reaction. Thus, a photovoltaic power converter may be disposed within a power generation system to facilitate photon capture while protecting the photovoltaic cell from fuel ignition and plasma reactions. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the reaction may be included such that the explosion does not negatively affect the photovoltaic cell. For example, the reaction may occur in a separate transparent container 1001 (such as in a vacuum container, at atmospheric pressure, above atmospheric pressure, below atmospheric pressure), the photovoltaic cell 1006 may be applied to the outer wall of the container and/or may be mounted just outside the container 1001. The photovoltaic power converter 1006 may be arranged in any suitable manner in any of the disclosed suitable power generation systems and may be integrated with any suitable components and component configurations. Fig. 13A depicts an embodiment in which the fuel loading region 1017 is disposed separate from the photovoltaic power converter 1006 and the reaction occurs in a region separate from the photovoltaic power converter 1006, while the embodiment of fig. 13B shows the reaction occurring in the same region as the reaction (e.g., inside or outside the vessel 1001).

In embodiments of the power converter, the plasma photons are incident on the photovoltaic material in response to the wavelength of the spontaneous emission or laser light, causing electrons to be ejected and collected at the grid or electrodes. Such as barium, tungsten, pure metals (e.g., Cu, Sm), Ba, Cs₂Te、K₂CsSb、LaB₆The photoelectric materials Sb-base, GaAs are used as photocathodes (positive electrodes) as given in the following references, the entire contents of which are incorporated by reference: M.D. Van Loy, "Measurements of barumphotocathode quantium yields at four eximer wavelengths", appl.Phys.letters, Vol.63, No. 4, 1993, p.476-478; S.D. Moustaizis, C.Fotakis, J.P.Girardeau-Montaut, "Laser phosphor reduction for high-current electron source", Proc.SPIE, Vol.1552, pp.50-56, Short-wavelength radiation source, Phillip Spragle, Ed.; d.h.dowell, s.z.bethel, k.d.friddell, "Results from the operationPower laser experimental phosphor injector test ", nucleic Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A, volume 356, 1995, page 167-; t.young, b.d' Etat, g.c.stutzin, k.n.leung, w.b.kunkel, "nanosound-length electron pulses from a laser-exitephosphaticathode", rev.sci.instrum, volume 61, No. 1, 1990, page 650-; minquan et al, "Investigation of photo cathode by a Laser", Qiangjigguang Yu Lizishu/High Power Laser and Particle Beams ", Nucl. Soc. China, vol.9, 2nd year 1997, 5 th month, page 185-191. The electron collector may function as an anode (negative electrode). The electronic circuit completed between these electrodes by the load causes the voltage developed between the electrodes to drive the current. Thus, the electrical power is transferred to and dissipated in the load.

Another application of the present disclosure is a light source. Optical power is the solid fuel ignition from the present disclosure. The light source comprises at least one transparent or translucent wall of the battery 1 shown in fig. 1 and 2. The transparent or translucent walls may be coated with a phosphor to convert the energy comprising light into a desired wavelength band. Ignition may occur at a frequency large enough so that light is constantly present. In an embodiment, the plasma formed by igniting the solid fuel generates a high output at short wavelengths. Significant optical power can be in the EUV and soft X-ray regions. Short wavelength light sources may be used for photolithography.

J. Gear part

Referring to the SF-CIHT battery shown in fig. 2A, a conventional gear set is typically designed to transfer mechanical energy from one gear to another. While these gears include a range of configurations, they are not typically designed to absorb shock waves or heat. Some applications, such as for example those described above, require gears that move and also maintain high impact and heat transfer. The gears and methods described below overcome at least one of the limitations of the prior art and are suitable for use in the systems and methods described above.

The gears of the present disclosure are configured for processes involving electrical conduction, pressure waves, or heat transfer. For example, a current ranging from about 2,000 amps to 100,000 amps and a voltage ranging from about 1 volt to about 100,000 volts may be applied to one or more gears, as described above. Pressure waves, heat transfer, and ion and/or plasma generation may be generated. In some embodiments, the gears of the present disclosure may be configured to operate with solid fuels (such as solid fuel powders).

As shown in fig. 14, the system 10 may be configured to generate energy as described above. System 10 may include a fuel source 20, fuel source 20 being configured to supply fuel 30 to one or more gears 40, as indicated by the arrows representing fuel fluid 50. The one or more gears 40 may also be coupled to one or more power sources 60 configured to provide power to the one or more gears 40.

As explained above, in conjunction with supplying electrical power to one or more gears 40, fuel 30 may be supplied to one or more gears 40. A reaction may occur whereby a number of photons including at least heat and light 70, pressure 80, or ions 90 are generated. Although some of the reaction products may subsequently be converted to electrical energy, the gear 40 must be configured to conduct the electrical power supplied by the power source 60 and withstand the heat and light 70, pressure 80, or ions 90 generated as a result of the reaction. The gear 40 and methods described herein may be operated with the system 10.

As shown in fig. 14, the system 10 may include two gears 40. In other embodiments, one or more than two gears 40 may be used. The gears 40 are also shown to rotate simultaneously. In other embodiments, a rack and pinion configuration may be used. Further, the gears 40 may include struts, screws, bevel, worm gears, or other types of gears.

The gear 40 may be operated with a range of fuels 30 and a range of fuel fluids 50. For example, the fuel 30 may include solid, liquid, or gaseous forms. As explained above, these fuels may include water or water-based fuel sources.

Gear 40 may also be formed from one or more suitable materials, including conductive and non-conductive components. For example, at least some of the gears 40 may comprise a pure metal, a metal alloy, or a ceramic material. Various materials and configurations may allow gear 40 to operate with pressure, heat, and fluctuations in the ambient environment.

As shown in fig. 15, the gear 40 may include one or more teeth 100. There may be a gap 110 between two adjacent teeth 100. The teeth 100 and gaps 110 may be any suitable shape or size, as described in more detail below. The gear 40 may also include one or more apertures 120, the apertures 120 configured to receive a shaft (not shown) configured to provide or output rotational movement. Additionally, gear 40 may include one or more other elements (not shown) for providing, monitoring, or controlling rotational movement. For example, gear 40 may include various bearings, bushings, or other mechanical elements.

As shown in fig. 16, the gear 40 may comprise one or more materials. Although both the teeth 100 and the gaps 110 are shown as having the first material 130 and the second material 140, one or more of the teeth 100 or the gaps 100 may or may not include two or more materials. Various materials that may be used to at least partially form gear 40 include Cu, Ag, Ti, W, Mo, TiC, WC, and other suitable elements having suitable conductivity, hardness, toughness, or other desired characteristics.

In some embodiments, the first material 130 may be more conductive than the second material. For example, the first material 130 may have a lower resistance value than the second material 140. First material 130 may comprise a different material than second material 140 or may be formed using a different process than second material 140. The first material 130 may be conductive and the second material 140 may be insulating. Other configurations of the materials 130, 140 are possible.

In operation, it should be understood that the gears 40, 40' shown in fig. 17 may both rotate relative to each other. This rotation may trap the fuel 30 between the gaps 110 of the gear 40 and the teeth 100 'of the gear 40'. Electrical power applied to the gears 40, 40' may pass through the first material 130 of the gap 110, through the fuel 30, and through the first material 130' of the teeth 100 '. Because of the difference in conductivity between the first material 130 and the surrounding second material 140, current will preferentially flow through a small portion of the fuel 30. This preferential flow will cause a localized reaction, wherein any products released will originate from the area defined by the first material 130, 130'.

In other embodiments, the materials 130, 140 may have different properties. For example, one material may be harder, more resistant to pressure pulses, more resistant to corrosion, etc. than another material.

In some aspects, the geometry of the teeth 100, the gaps 110, or both, may be configured to provide a localized reaction. For example, as shown in fig. 18A-21B, the teeth 100 may have various configurations. It is also understood that gap 110 may be similarly configured to provide a geometry characteristic of a localized reaction.

Fig. 18A, 19A, 20A and 21A illustrate side profile views of a tooth 100 according to various embodiments. Fig. 18B, 19B, 20B, and 21B illustrate lateral views of the corresponding teeth 100 illustrated in fig. 18A, 19A, 20A, and 21A. In particular, fig. 18A shows a tooth 100, the tooth 100 having an upper surface 150, two side surfaces 170, and two inclined surfaces 160 located between the upper surface 150 and the side surfaces 170. Fig. 18B shows the surfaces 150, 160, 170 extending completely from the first face 180 of the tooth 100 to the second face 190 of the tooth 100.

Fig. 19A shows a tooth 100, the tooth 100 having an upper surface 200 and side surfaces 210 extending from a middle surface 220. Similar to upper surface 150, the contact area of upper surface 200 with an adjacent surface (not shown) is reduced. The upper surface 200 extends partially in the area between the sidewalls 170 in one dimension and completely between the first surface 180 and the second surface 190. This configuration is shown in fig. 19B, similar to the lateral view shown in fig. 18B.

Although fig. 20A is similar to fig. 18A, the lateral view shown in fig. 20B is different from the lateral view shown in fig. 18B. Specifically, the surface 150' does not extend completely from the first surface 180 to the second surface 190, portions of the inclined surface 160' extend from the first surface 180 to the second surface 190, and the side surface 170' extends completely from the first surface 180 to the second surface 190. Likewise, fig. 21A illustrates an embodiment in which the upper surface 200' extends only partially from the first face 180 to the second face 180.

The surfaces shown in fig. 18A-21B are flat and linear, but may be arcuate and include other surface features. These surfaces may also be coated and may include protrusions, indentations, or deviations.

In the embodiment shown in fig. 22A, tooth 100 includes a sloped surface 220 positioned at an angle θ relative to a normal plane 240. Gap 110' may also include a location that is angled with respect to normal plane 240The inclined surface 230. Although shown as having two surfaces 220, 230, one surface may be substantially parallel to the normal plane 240.

The surfaces 220, 230 may operate by providing additional compression or concentration of the fuel 30 (not shown) at a particular location between the teeth 100 and the gap 110'. As shown in FIG. 22A, a first or selected region 250 to the left of the gap 110 'may have a higher concentration of fuel or the fuel may experience greater compression than a second region 260 to the right of the gap 110'. In other embodiments, the first region 250 may be disposed about the tooth 100, the gap 110', or a combination of both the tooth 100 and the gap 110' in various ways. For example, as shown in fig. 22B, tooth 100 may include an arcuate surface 270 and gap 110' may include an arcuate surface 280. The arcuate surfaces 270, 280 may be configured to provide the second regions 260 on either side for the selected region 250 to be substantially centered within the gap 110'. Further, at least one of the surfaces 270, 280 may extend over the tooth 100 and the gap 110', as shown with reference to the different surfaces in fig. 18-19B. In other embodiments, at least one of the surfaces 270, 280 may partially extend throughout the tooth 100 and the gap 110', as shown with the different surfaces in fig. 20A-21B.

As shown in fig. 22B, the fingers of the gears 40, 40' may form an hourglass or a clamped shape. The material immediately adjacent the neck or waist (region 280) of the hourglass may be formed by a highly stable or hardened material, which may be an insulator such as ceramic. For example, the central regions of the surfaces 270, 280 may be stabilized or hardened. The material adjacent the non-waist or bulbous portion of the gears 40, 40' may comprise a material having more conductive properties (such as metals such as transition, internal transition, rare earth, group 13, group 14 and group 15 metals or alloys of at least two such metals). The waist portion of the surfaces 270, 280 may compress the select region 280 and current may be concentrated in the waist region through the non-waist or bulbous region. Thus, the current density in the selected region 280 including the waist may be increased such that the detonation threshold is achieved. The waist may be protected from damage by reaction by making the waist material comprising the hardened material resistant to corrosion. Non-waisted or bulbous regions comprising conductors contact the non-selected fuel regions, wherein fuel interposed between the reaction products and the corresponding gear surfaces can protect the surfaces from corrosion by the reaction and its products.

Other variations of the hourglass configuration include the embodiment shown in fig. 22C. As shown, the gear 40 includes a cavity 286 surrounded by a conductive material 282 (such as a metal). Gear 40 also includes a surface material 284 configured to withstand plasma formation. In some embodiments, material 284 may comprise a ceramic. Likewise, the gear 40 'may include a cavity 286' surrounded by the conductive material 282 'and including a surface material 284'.

In operation, the gears 40, 40' in fig. 22C can move, substantially aligned as shown. Then, with fuel (not shown) compressed within the chambers 286, 286', electrical current may be applied longitudinally from the gear 40 to the gear 40' through the chambers 286, 286 '. In particular, the current may flow through the fuel in chamber 286, through surface material 284', and into chamber 286'. Unreacted fuel may remain within the chamber 286, 286 'to at least partially protect the electrically conductive material 282, 282' from the reaction products. Additionally, the surface materials 284, 284 'can be configured to be more effective at withstanding the reaction products than the materials 282, 282'. Thus, the gears 40, 40' shown in fig. 22C may have a longer operational life than gears 40, 40' formed from only the materials 282, 282 '.

In some embodiments, the gear 40 may require cooling to dissipate the heat generated by the reaction. Accordingly, the gear 40 may include one or more conduits configured to receive a coolant. The coolant may comprise water or other liquids known to those skilled in the art (such as solvents or liquid metals). These conduits may be configured for high heat transfer. For example, the conduit 290 may include a large surface area for assisting heat transfer, as shown in fig. 23A. In other embodiments, multiple conduits 300, 310 may be formed within the internal structure of the gear 40, as shown in fig. 23B.

One or more of the gears 40, 40 'may also include a motion system 320, 320', as shown in fig. 24. The motion system 320, 320 'may be configured to move one or more gears 40, 40'. For example, motion system 320 may move gear 40 to the left or right as shown in fig. 24. This movement toward or away from the gear 40 'may compress or concentrate the fuel 30 (not shown) between the gear 40 and the gear 40'. It is also contemplated that motion system 320 may include a damper (such as a spring) configured to absorb some of the shock generated by the reaction. Other devices and systems may also be configured to improve gear function or life.

In another embodiment, one or more gears 40 can be moved by a fastening mechanism (such as, for example, a reciprocating link rod attached and actuated by a crankshaft). This may be similar to systems and methods of piston systems of internal combustion engines. For example, as the counter electrode portions of the gears 40, 40' rotate into the counter-mating position, the counter electrodes are driven together when compressed. They can be moved apart by the fastening member after ignition. The counter electrode may be of any desired shape and may be selectively energized to cause at least some of the fuel 30 to undergo greater compression in selected regions or greater current density in selected regions. The opposite electrode may form a hemispherical shell compressing the fuel to maximize the compression of the center (see fig. 22B). The highest current density may also be in the center to selectively achieve a threshold for firing in the center region. The expanding plasma may flow out of the open portion of the hemispherical shell. In another embodiment, the counter electrode may form an hourglass shape, wherein the selected region may comprise a waist or neck portion of the hourglass (see fig. 22C).

It is also contemplated that system 10 may include other components that function in a similar manner as gear 40. For example, in some embodiments, system 10 may include one or more support members 400 (fig. 25). It is also contemplated that one or more gears 40, members 400, or similar components may be used in combination in a single system, or in portions of each component used within a system.

As shown in fig. 25, first support member 410 may be disposed generally adjacent to second support member 420 with shaft 430 coaxially aligned with shaft 440. As further shown by the arrows in fig. 25, when viewed from above, the first support member 410 may rotate in a counterclockwise direction and the second support member 420 may rotate in a clockwise direction. Additionally, first support member 410 may be coupled to first shaft 430 and second support member 420 may be coupled to second shaft 440. The one or more support members 400 may be coupled in various ways to allow rotational movement. For example, one support member 400 may rotate while the other may remain stationary. One or more support members 400 may also be moved on a periodic basis, continuously, or controlled to move at one or more different speeds.

Similar to the gear 40 described above, the support member 400 can be configured to allow the reactions to occur as provided herein. Support member 400 may include one or more contact elements configured to allow a reaction to occur, as described below. The reaction can be initiated by applying a high current. For example, an electrical current may be applied across two contact elements that are in close proximity to each other. Such "contact" may not include physical contact between the elements, but should be close enough to allow current to flow from one contact element to another. The current may flow through the fuel described herein (such as, for example, a powder comprising metals and metal oxides). Similar to the gear 40 described above, at least a portion of the support member 400 may be electrically conductive.

Fig. 26 shows shafts 430, 440 according to an exemplary embodiment. In this embodiment, shaft 430 is coaxially aligned and extends through at least a portion of shaft 440. Such a configuration may allow for relative rotation between support members 410, 420. Fig. 26 also shows support members 410, 420 having one or more contact elements 450. As described above, contact elements 450 may be configured to interact with each other, or with another structure, to provide a region in which reactions described herein may occur. The interaction may include physical contact, intimate contact, or the separation of one element from another by a distance configured to allow current to flow from one element to the other. For example, first contact element 452 may be in proximity to second contact element 454, and a voltage sufficient to pass an electrical current through the fuel to form an energetic reaction may be applied across elements 452, 454. The energy released from this reaction may deflect support member 410 and/or support member 420, as indicated by the arrows in fig. 26. This deflection may provide an energy absorption mechanism that absorbs some of the energy released by the reaction.

Fig. 27 shows a support member 400 according to another exemplary embodiment that includes one or more couplers 460. Coupler 460 may include a series of devices or systems configured to allow movement of one or more support members 400. For example, the coupling 460 may include gears, pulleys, or other devices configured to transmit rotational movement to the shaft 430. In particular, the coupling 460 may be coupled to a motor (not shown), such as an electrical, mechanical, or other type of motor configured to generate movement. The coupling 460 may also include a gripper, a circuit breaker, or similar mechanism for controlling the rotational movement of the support member 400. Coupling 462 may also include active or passive dampers to absorb at least some of the forces applied to support member 410, shaft 430, or first contact element 452. A force applied to either the first support member 410 or the first shaft 430 may cause either component to move as shown by arrow 432. This vertical movement may occur if energetic reactions between contact elements 450 apply significant forces to support member 410. The active damping system may include a processor (not shown) configured to allow this movement or provide a counteracting force to partially reduce this movement. The passive damping system may include a spring, an elastomer, or other device configured to absorb some of the applied force.

As shown, the first coupling 462 is mechanically coupled to the first shaft 430 and the second coupling 464 is mechanically coupled to the second shaft 440. One or more than two couplers 460 may be used with support member 400. It is also contemplated that one or more couplings 460 may be disposed between shafts 430, 440 and corresponding support members 410, 420. Additionally, a third coupler 466 may be located between support members 400. The third coupler 466 may include a thrust bearing or similar device configured to allow rotational movement of the one or more support members 400 under high compressive loads. If a highly energetic reaction occurs, support member 400 may be placed under a high compressive load to counter the effects of a large force applied to support member 400. Thus, the couplers 462, 464 may transmit compressive loads to the shafts 430, 440 and the support members 410, 420.

Fig. 28 shows another embodiment of the support member 400, whereby the axes 430, 440 are offset from the axis. As shown, support members 410, 420 are not parallel to each other, but are arranged such that the distance between the contact elements is smaller on the right and larger on the left. This asymmetry allows the contact elements (not shown) to interact more easily with each other for the purpose of forming a reaction on the right side while allowing the left side region to be substantially free of any similar reaction.

In another embodiment, support members 410, 420 may be arranged as shown in fig. 29. Here, the axes 430, 440 are offset axes and parallel to each other. This arrangement may allow support members 410, 420 to overlap, as shown in central region 444. The reaction can occur in the region 444, again with a high energy release. The forces generated by this reaction may be partially absorbed by flexing support members 410, 420 and/or the mechanisms described above in fig. 27. A coupling (not shown) used in conjunction with the shafts 430, 440 as shown in fig. 29 may include radial thrust bearings that operate with the lateral forces generated on the shafts 430, 440.

As shown in fig. 30, support member 400 is supplied with fuel using one or more fuel sources 20. As described above, fuel source 20 may provide various types of fuels described herein to select regions of one or more support members 400. One or more operating elements 470 may also be provided. The operating element 470 may be configured to at least one of monitor, clean, control, or at least partially regenerate the support member 400. For example, operative element 470 may include a camera operating at visible, infrared, ultrasonic, or other wavelengths to inspect support member 400. This inspection may provide warning system 10 with an early warning system that support member 400 is not operating properly, needs maintenance, or may fail. Element 470 may also include a brush, nozzle, scraper, or other device configured to at least partially clean support member 400. The operating element 470 may control the speed of the support member 400 or the force applied to the support member 400 or operate like a brake. Element 470 may also comprise means for at least partially regenerating support member 400. For example, element 470 may include a means for reapplying a surface to support member 400, or subjecting support member 400 to heating or cooling to allow support member 400 to be partially repaired. The element 470 may be configured to apply a protective coating on the component 400, which may then be secured and positioned by a heating or cooling step. Routine maintenance may also be performed using the operating element 470.

Operation of one or more support members 400 requires the presence and operation of one or more contact elements 450, described in detail below. Similar to the teeth 100 and gaps 110 of the gear 40, as described above, the contact elements 450 are configured to interact to provide a region for reactions involving the fuel 30. Similar to the above, one or more support members 400 may also be coupled to one or more power sources 60 configured to provide power to one or more support members 400.

In some embodiments, as shown in fig. 31A, support member 400 may be generally circular, with fig. 31A showing underside surface 480 of support member 410. The member 400 may also be any suitable shape or size. Surface 480 may include one or more first contact elements 452. As shown, contact element 452 may be disposed generally around a periphery of surface 480. In other embodiments, one or more contact elements 452 may be disposed across surface 480 in various ways. In other embodiments, as shown in fig. 31B, support member 410 may include one or more support elements 490 extending generally from shaft 430. The support element 490 may be any suitable shape, size, or configuration for providing support for the one or more first contact elements 452. In other embodiments, contact element 450 may be located on a stationary surface.

Fig. 32A to D show cross-sectional side views of the contact elements 452, 454 according to one embodiment moved relative to each other. As shown, contact element 452 coupled to support member 410 (not shown) moves to the right and contact element 454 coupled to support member 420 (not shown) moves to the left. In other embodiments, only one contact element 450 may move while the other may remain stationary. Initially, as shown in fig. 32A, first contact element 452 is positioned above and to the left of second contact element 454. First contact element 452 moves to the right and second contact element 454 moves to the left such that a lower region of first contact element 452 is in close proximity to or in physical contact with an upper region of second contact element 454. As explained below, this close proximity (e.g., intimate contact) or physical contact may allow a reaction to occur. In another embodiment, one or more contact elements 452, 454 may interact with each other simultaneously, as shown in fig. 33.

Fig. 34 shows an enlarged cross-sectional view of contact element 450. As described above, contact element 450 may be coupled to support member 400 or form part of support member 400 in various ways. Contact element 450 may include one or more cavities 500. One or more cavities 500 may provide cooling to contact element 450, transfer fuel, or reduce the weight of contact element 450. As described above for conduit 290, one or more cavities 500 may include a large surface area for assisting heat transfer. Contact element 450 may also include one or more contact regions 510. Contact region 510 may comprise a material different from the material of contact element 450. Contact region 510 may also be formed by a process different from the process of contact element 450. Although not shown, other portions of contact element 450 may include one or more contact regions 510.

Contact element 450 may also include a leading edge 512 and a trailing edge 514. Although shown as curved, one or more edges of the element 450 may be linear (see, e.g., fig. 36). Contact element 450 may be any suitable shape and size depending, for example, on the structural requirements necessary for the reaction conditions. Additionally, contact element 450 may be coupled to support member 400 (not shown) in various ways. The coupling may be via physical coupling (e.g., welding, adhesive), mechanical coupling (e.g., rivets, bolts, etc.), or other coupling mechanisms. It is also contemplated that one or more contact elements are integral with one or more support members 400. Similar to blades in turbines, this one-piece construction may provide manufacturing advantages, weight advantages, increased tolerance to reaction conditions, and reduced maintenance requirements. Hybrid, composite, and other configurations are also possible. Similar to that described above for gear 40, contact element 450 may be electrically conductive and may include one or more electrically conductive materials (not shown). Such conductivity may include overall conductivity, or a particular path or region of the element 450 may be conductive. Different portions of the element 450 may also have different conductivities.

In some embodiments, such as with support member 400 as shown in fig. 25, it may be desirable to deflect one or more contact elements 450. For example, allowing reactions to occur in selected areas between one or more contact elements 450. To deflect the contact element 450, a deflection member 520 may be used. The deflecting member 520 may be arranged to at least partially deflect one or more contact elements 450. For example, as shown in fig. 35A-D, the deflecting member 520 may be configured to alter the movement of the contact element 452. As shown in FIG. 35A, contact element 452 may be moved to the right. Then, when in contact with the deflecting member 520 (fig. 35B), the contact element 452 may also move in a downward direction such that the contact element 452 contacts the contact element 454. Once the two elements 452, 454 are in contact (fig. 35C), a reaction can occur by applying a current across the elements 452, 454. After the reaction, the contact element 452 may move past the deflecting member 520 and move in an upward direction, as shown in fig. 35D.

The reaction with contact elements 452, 454 and fuel according to some embodiments will now be described in detail. As shown in fig. 36A-C, the fuel layer 530 may be generally located between the first contact element 452 and the second contact element 454. The fuel layer 530 may extend at least partially across the contact region 510 of the first contact element 452 and/or the second contact element 454. The fuel layer 530 may comprise various materials, including fuel 20, and may be deposited using various devices and methods, as described herein. The fuel layer 530 may also be generally located between the contact elements 452, 454, as physical contact with either or both elements may not be required (fig. 36A).

After fuel layer 530 is suitably disposed between contact elements 452, 454, an electrical current may be applied across contact elements 452, 454. Some or all of contact elements 452, 454 may be electrically conductive, similar to that described above for gear 40. For example, one or more conductive materials may be disposed within or about contact elements 452, 454. The applied voltage and current are described herein and may depend on the type of fuel 20 contained with the fuel bed 530. After the current application, a high energy reaction may occur, moving contact elements 452, 454 apart (fig. 36B). The extent of any movement will depend on a variety of factors including, for example, the energy and power released by the reaction, the shape, size, and material of the contact elements, and any supporting structure.

As shown in fig. 36C, after the reaction, contact elements 452, 454 may be moved toward each other. As explained above with respect to fig. 27, according to the associated structure and apparatus, the movement can be highly suppressed. In some aspects, some oscillatory movement may occur.

While the above-described embodiment includes rotational movement between contact elements 450, it is also contemplated that other types of movement may be used. For example, a reciprocating motion may be used. Fig. 37A to C show examples of the reciprocating movement in which the contact element 452 is coupled to the pendulum 540. In operation, pendulum 540 moves back and forth over contact element 454. The fuel layer 530 may be generally located between the elements 452, 454 (FIG. 37A) before the contact elements 452, 454 interact with each other. When first contact element 452 is generally disposed adjacent to or over second contact element 454 (fig. 37B), an electrical current may be applied across contact elements 452, 454. The resulting release of energy may force first contact element 452 to swing away from second contact element 454 (fig. 37C), where some of the released energy is absorbed by the movement of pendulum 540 and contact element 452. The pendulum 540 may then swing back again and the cycle may repeat.

In another embodiment, the contact elements are movable in a linear direction relative to each other. For example, as shown in fig. 38A-C, the first contact element 452 may be located within a channel 550 configured to receive the first contact element 452. Aperture 552 of channel 550 may be disposed adjacent second contact element 454 such that contact elements 452, 454 may move toward or away from each other via a generally linear motion. As shown in fig. 38A, contact element 452 is movable toward fuel bed 530 on second contact element 454. An electrical current may be applied to the first contact element 452 via the wall 554 of the channel 550, or via another mechanism, to interact with the fuel layer 530 (fig. 38B). This reaction may then push first contact element 452 away from second contact element 454 and up into channel 550 (fig. 38C).

Various systems for differential movement between contact elements 450 may be combined with one or more of the features described above. For example, the disk, pendulum, or channel embodiments described above may include one or more of the features described and illustrated in fig. 27. For example, a spring (not shown) may be placed within channel 550 of the channel embodiment (fig. 38A-C) to provide a damping force to first contact element 452. In another example, a linkage (not shown) may be placed at the upper end of the pendulum 540 to at least partially control the movement, rate, force received, or force applied on the first contact element 452 in this embodiment (fig. 37A-C).

The various embodiments described herein may also be combined with one or more photovoltaic cells as described herein. To improve the performance of the photovoltaic cell 570 or similar device, various components may be used to reduce the effects or effects of the energy released by the reactions described herein. For example, as shown in fig. 39, a protective membrane 560 may be at least partially disposed between one or both contact elements 452, 454 and a photovoltaic cell 570. The membrane 560 may be configured to partially diffuse the shock wave, deflect some of the particles formed by the reaction, or provide at least a partial barrier, providing additional protection for the cell 570. The diaphragm 560 may be formed of a continuous material, and may be transparent. In some embodiments, the membrane 560 can filter out one or more wavelengths. The separator 560 may be directly coupled to the battery 570 or disposed at a distance from the battery 570.

In other embodiments, a series of barriers 580 may be provided. The barrier may be generally located between the reaction sites of the elements 452, 454 and the cell 570. The barriers 580 may be arranged in various ways and may be disposed along similar radii or in layers at different radii to assist or provide protection for the battery 570. For example, the barrier 580 may include a series of baffles, mesh members, or other objects for directing or diffusing the shock waves to protect the cells 570. In yet another embodiment, one or more operations or structures of the separator 570 or barrier 580 may be integrated into a single structure or formed as part of the cell 570.

Axial fan application powered by K.SF-CIHT battery

Photovoltaic conversion of the optical power output from the hydrino reaction represents a new market for the solar industry that has become well established. Another source of renewable energy, including important industries, relates to wind power, where windmills are used to generate electricity. One of the determinants of wind farms is that they change the climate of important environmental areas by changing the wind pattern. Wind farms may change the local climate. In an embodiment of the SF-CIHT generator, windmills are used to change the climate in a desired way. In an embodiment, a plurality of windmills are each driven by a SF-CIHT generator to blow moist near sea air onto land, agglomerate and settle on dry land so that it does not dry.

Another source of renewable energy, including important industries, relates to wind power, where windmills are used to generate electricity. One of the determinants of wind farms is that they change the climate of important environmental areas by changing the wind pattern. Wind farms may change the local climate. In an embodiment of the SF-CIHT generator, windmills are used to change the climate in a desired way. In an embodiment, a plurality of windmills are each driven by a SF-CIHT generator to blow moist near sea air onto land, agglomerate and settle on dry land so that it does not dry. The amount of water that can be moved to land can be calculated from the power equation of the wind turbine. The dynamic power P of the wind through the mill is given by

P＝1/2ρAv³(202)

Where ρ is the air density (1.3 kg/m)³) Where A is the area swept by the blades and v is the wind velocity when the wind turbine is powered on. Velocity v is also the wind speed of the wind turbine that is produced within area a when powered by the power P applied by the SF-CIHT generator, where the performance factor corresponding to the axial fan is considered 1/2 when an order of magnitude estimation is made. Currently, commercial windmills with 164m diameter blades that generate 7MW of power. Thus, the wind speed is

Air mass moving at each timeIs given by:

H₂the amount of O is 3% of the mass of the blown air orLand acres are 43,560 square feet or 4 × 10⁷cm²Rain requirement of 4 × 10 for 1cm depth⁷cm³Or 4 × 10⁴kg of H₂And O. At a given H₂In the case of O movement rate, can be perThis amount of water is supplied. Thus, within a week, 100,000 acres can be multiplied. A wind farm comprising 150 windmills will irrigate 1 fifteen million acres. As an alternative beneficial application in hurricane storm regions, research conducted by Stanford university [ http:// www.youtube.com/watch? M7uRtxl8j2U]Passive (generating) windmills have been shown to reduce the high winds of hurricanes and dissipate storms before they develop. This application is greatly highlighted by the fact that the SF-CIHT generator supplies the windmill with power so that the wind blows in the opposite direction. Thus, the capacity of the wind farm used in this application can be greatly reduced.

Experiment XI

A. Exemplary SF-CIHT cell test results for energy and solid fuel regeneration

In experimental testing, the samples included a NiOOH coated film (C)<1mm thick) 1cm of strip casting coating, 11 wt.% carbon and 27 wt.% Ni powder²A nickel screen conductor. The material was constrained between two copper electrodes of a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder and subjected to short pulses of low voltage, high current electrical energy. The applied 60Hz voltage was about 8V peak and the peak current was about 20,000A. After about 0.14ms at an energy input of about 46J, the material evaporates in about 1 ms. Testing several standard dimensions of wiring to determine 8VWhether sufficient to cause the appearance of a wire burst observed with a short-circuited high-energy, multi-kilovolt charged, high capacitance capacitor. Only the known resistive heating leading to red and heating leading to melting in the case of 0.25mm diameter Au wires was observed.

The thermodynamically calculated energy for evaporating just 350mg of NiOOH and 50mg of Ni metal is 3.22kJ or 9.20kJ/g of NiOOH. This experiment confirmed the large energy release since the NiOOH decomposition energy was essentially 0. An explosion initiated after a non-negligible total energy applied at 40J. The explosion caused an explosion by thermal power corresponding to1,100,000W (1.1MW) releasing 3.22kJ of thermal energy in 3 ms. At a given 1cm²Area sum<Volume power density in excess of 11 × 10 for a sample size of 1mm thickness⁹W/l heat. The gas temperature was 5500K from the fitting of the visible spectrum recorded with an Ocean Optics visible spectrophotometer to the black body radiation curve.

In view of this, the calculated thermal energy to achieve the observed evaporation of just 350mg of NiOOH and 50mg of Ni mesh assembly of the reaction mixture was 3.22 kJ. 350mg of H in NiOOH₂Is 2 millimoles. Based on H₂H of the hydrino reaction of₂(1/4) to 2/3, which is stoichiometrically H, becomes the HOH catalyst and 1/3 becomes hydrino H₂H of (1/4)₂(1/4) calculated 50 MJ/mole H₂Enthalpy of (1/4), forming H₂(1/4) the corresponding maximum theoretical energy is 33 kJ; therefore, about 10% of the available hydrogen is converted to H₂(1/4). Corresponding fractional hydrogen reaction yield of 64.4 micromoles of H₂(1/4)。

Another embodiment of the solid fuel comprises 100mg Co powder and hydrated 20mg MgCl₂. The reactants were compressed into pellets and the pellets were ignited by subjecting them to short pulses of low voltage, high current electrical energy using a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder. The applied 60Hz voltage is about 8V peak and the peak current is about 20,000A. An explosion occurred in the argon-filled gas-tight isolation shield and an estimated plasma energy of 3kJ was released. The particles of the plasma are concentrated intoAnd (4) nano powder. With 10mg of H₂O to hydrate the product and repeat the ignition. The repeated explosions of the regenerated solid fuel are more powerful than the first, releasing about 5kJ of energy. In another embodiment, Ag replaces Co.

Thermal determination of solid fuels for SF-CIHT cells

The solid fuel pellets were subjected to a calorimeter using a Parr 1341 flat jacketed calorimeter with a Parr 6774 calorimeter thermometer option. The Parr 1108 oxygen combustion chamber of the calorimeter was modified to allow the chemical reaction to be initiated with high current. The copper rod ignition electrode comprising a copper cylinder of 1/2 "Outer Diameter (OD) 12" length was fed by including graphite pellets (-1000 mg, lxwxh ═ 0.18 "x 0.6" x 0.3 ") as a sealed chamber to control the resistive load used to calibrate the heat capacity of the calorimeter or solid fuel pellets, with the ends having copper clamps to tightly restrain each sample. The thermometer water bath was loaded with 2,000g of DI water (according to Parr manual). The power source for calibration and ignition of the solid fuel pellets was a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder that supplied short pulses of electrical energy in the form of 60Hz low voltage of about 8V RMS and high current of about 15,000 to 20,000A. The input energy for calibration and ignition of the solid fuel is given as the product of the voltage and current integrated over the input time. The voltage was measured by a Data Acquisition System (DAS) including a PC with a National Instruments USB-6210 data acquisition module and Labview VI. The current was also measured by the same DAS as the signal source using Rogowski coils (Model CWT600LF with 700mm cable) accurate to 0.3%. The V and I input data were taken at 10KS/s and the analog input voltage was brought within +/-10V of USB-6210 using a voltage attenuator.

Calibrated heat capacity of the calorimeter and electrode apparatus was determined to be 12,000J/deg.C by a spot welder using graphite pellets with an energy input of 995J the bags sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (70mg) (aluminum crucible 30. mu.l, D: 6.7 × 3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6, 7, pressed, sealed (Setaram, S08/HBB37409)) were ignited with an applied peak 60Hz voltage of 3V and a peak current of approximately 11,220ACu (45mg) + CuO (15mg) + H₂O (15mg) of a solid fuel. The measured input energy from voltage and current over time was 46J, the sample was ignited as indicated by the destructive spike in the waveform with a total of 899J input with the power pulse of the spot welder, and the total output energy calculated for the calorimeter thermal response to the energy released by the ignited solid fuel using the calibrated thermal capacity was 3,035.7J. By subtracting the input energy, the net energy is 2,136.7J for the 0.075g sample. In use H₂In the control experiment conducted by O, the alumina disk did not undergo a reaction other than becoming vaporized in an explosion. XRD also showed no alumina formation. Therefore, the theoretical chemical reaction energy is 0, and the solid fuel generates an excess energy of 28,500J/g when forming hydrino.

C. Photovoltaic power conversion

The applied peak 60Hz voltage of 3-6V and peak current of about 10,000-15,000A were used to ignite a material comprising Cu (45mg) + CuO (15mg) + H (15 mg)) sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (70mg) (aluminum crucible 30. mu.l, D: 6.7 × 3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6, 7, pressed, sealed (Setaram, S08/HBB37409))₂O (15mg) of a solid fuel. The visible spectrum was recorded using an Ocean Optics visible spectrophotometer (Ocean Optics Jaz with ILX511b detector, OFLV-3 filter, L2 lens, 5 μm slit, 350 and 1000 nm). The spectrum fits in a black body of approximately 6000K. The black body temperature of the sun is 5800K. Since both the sun and SF-CIHT plasma are at 5800K-6000K (FIG. 40) and the sun is 1000W/m at earth²So that the solar cell is used as a power meter. The optical power density of the plasma is calculated given the distance from the center of ignition to the solar cell based on the relative solar cell power density response to the plasma source relative to the sun. The total optical power of the plasma source is then calculated by multiplying the power density by the solid angular area of the spherical shell of determined density.

At 1000W/m²As a standard light source, the efficiency of the single crystal solar panel was determined. Using records in single crystalsThe power on the solar panel and its area and the duration of the ignition event of 20 mus determined by high speed video of 150,000 frames per second, determines the power density of the plasma to be 6 × 10⁶W/m². The optical power of the plasma was confirmed with an Ocean Optics spectrophotometer. The separation distance from the center of the plasma, which results in a spectral intensity matching the standard point source power light source, to the entrance of the fiber optic cable is determined. The power of the plasma source is then given by correcting the standard power with the squared separation distance. Typical separation distances are large (such as 700 cm).

By multiplying the power density by the solid angle spherical area of 10 inch radius (distance between the ignition center and the solar panel), the total optical power of the plasma was determined to be 0.8m²×6×10⁶W/m²＝4.8×10⁶Total energy given by the total power multiplied by the duration of the explosion of 20 μm is (4.8 × 10)⁶W)(20×10^-6s) 96J. The energy released upon detonation of the solid fuel, typically measured with a calorimeter, is about 1000J. The reduction in the amount of optical energy that is considered to be recorded is due to the slow response time of single crystal solar cells, which is detrimental to the fast ignition emission. GaAs cells may be more suitable.

The 5800K blackbody temperature of the sun and the blackbody temperature of the ignited plasma are approximately the same because the heating mechanism is the same in both cases (H catalytic component number hydrogen). The temperature of the high explosion is also as high as 5500K as expected because the high temperature source is forming hydrinos. Since solar cells have been optimized to convert 5800K of blackbody radiation to electricity, photovoltaic conversion using solar cells is a suitable power conversion means to get the SF-CIHT generator identified by these tests.

A series of ignitions was performed on solid fuel pellets each comprising 100mg of Cu +30mg of deionized water sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (75mg) (aluminum crucible 30. mu.l, D: 6.7X 3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6, 7, pressed, sealed (Setaram, S08/HBB 37409)). The pellets were adhered to a copper metal strip at 1.9cm intervals and the strip was formed around the platen of a national electric Welding machines seam welder (100kVA Model #100AOPT SPCT 24) and ignited with an applied peak 60Hz voltage of about 4-8V and a peak current of about 10,000 and 35,000A. The rotational speed was adjusted so that detonation occurred at a detonation frequency of 1Hz when the rollers moved each pellet to the top dead center position of the seam welder. Bright flashes of light are converted to electricity with a photovoltaic converter and the electricity is dissipated in an array of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).

A Lexan walled three-sided metal frame was placed to surround a seam welder pan so that the closest separation distance of the walls of the rectangular housing from the welder pan was about 15 cm. to attach a 30W, 12V Solar panel to each of the three walls of the housing, each panel comprised a high efficiency 6 "polycrystalline cell, low iron tempered glass, and EVA film with TPT backsheet, the cell was encapsulated with an anodized aluminum alloy frame (Type6063-T5) (UL Solar, http:// www.ulsolar.com/30_ Watt _12_ Volt _ multicristalline _ Solar _ panel _ p/stp030p. htm.) other Solar panel specifications were cell (polycrystalline silicon) 156mm × 39mm, number of cells and connections: 36(4 × 9); size of module: 26.2 × 16.2.852. 16.2 × 0.98 inches; weight: 8 lbs. electrical characteristics are power at STC: 30 Watts; voltage (Vpm): 17.3; maximum power current: 1.3; maximum power current: 1.77:/: 1.3; maximum power current amplitude A.1.3; maximum current radiation temperature: 93.1.1.77:. c; short circuit temperature condition: 93.3. c. short circuit temperature (Ipc)²AM ═ 1.5; maximum system voltage: 600V DC; the series of fusible links are rated as follows: 10A; temperature coefficient Isc: 0.06%/K, Voc: -0.36%/K, Pmax: -0.5%/K; the operation temperature is-40 ℃ to +85 ℃; storage humidity: 90 percent; type of output terminal: a junction box; cable: 9 inches, 3000 mm.

The solar panel is connected to the LED array. The LED array includes Genssi LED Off Road Light 4 × 4WorkLight Waterprof 27W 12V 6000K (30Degre Spot) http:// www.amazon.com/Genssi-Light-Waterprof-6000K-Degree/dp/B005 WWLQ8G/ref ═ sr _1_ 1? ie UTF8& qid 1396219947& sr 8-1& keyword B005WWLQ8G, ledwholaters 16.4Feet (5Meter) Flexible LED Light Strip with300 smd3528and additive Back,12Volt, White,2026WH (24W total), http:// www.amazon.com/ledwholaters-Flexible-LED-Strip-300 xsdm 3528/dp/B002Q8V8 DM/sr _1_ 1? ie UTF8& qid 1396220045& sr 8-1& keywords B002Q8V8DM, 9W12V Underwater LED Light landscale Fountain point LampBulb http:// www.amazon.com/Underwater-Light-landscale Fountain-White/dp/B00 aqvhj U/ref sr _1_ 1? ie UTF8& qid 1396220111& sr 8-1& keywords B00 AQWVHJU. The estimated total power output at the rated voltage and wattage of the LED is 27W +24W + 9W-60W. The aggregate output power of the three solar panels is 90W under 1 sun steady state conditions.

A series of sequential firings at 1Hz maintains the LED array in substantially continuous operation at full light output. Consider the balance of energy collected by the three solar panels from each of the solid-fuel-pellet detonations. The LED outputs about 60W in about 1s, even though the explosion is much shorter (100 mus). Polycrystalline photovoltaic materials have response times and maximum powers that are not well suited for multi-megawatt short pulses. However, the battery acts as an integrator of approximately 60J of energy over a 1s time interval. It was determined that the light reflection at Lexan was 50% and that polycrystalline cells were about 10% efficient at converting 5800K light to electricity. Correcting 60J for reflection and 10% efficiency corresponds to 1200J. The corresponding optical power within a 100 mus event is 12 MW. The energy released by detonation of each pellet measured by the independent combustion bomb calorimeter test method was about 1000J. The detonation time was determined to be 100 mus by rapid detection with a photodiode. Therefore, the power was determined to be about 10 MW. The power density of the optical power determined by a visible spectrophotometer exceeds 1MW/m at a distance greater than about 200cm². The optical power density was determined to be consistent with the expected black body radiation at 6000K according to Stefan-Boltzmann's law. Compared to the calorimeter and spectroscopic power results, the photovoltaic converter gives a reasonable energy balance.

D. Plasma dynamic power conversion

20mg in an aluminum DSC pan (aluminum crucible 30. mu.l, D: 6.7 × 3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6, 7, pressed, sealed (Setaram, S08/HBB37409))Co of (A)₃O₄Or 0.05ml (50mg) of H was added to CuO₂And O. Each sample was ignited using a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder with a current of between 15,000 and 25,000A at an RVS of approximately 8V applied to an ignition electrode comprising a copper cylinder of 5/8 "Outer Diameter (OD) 3" length with a flat end bounding the sample. A high power pulse was observed that evaporated each sample into an energetic, highly ionized, expanding plasma. The PDC electrode comprised two 1/16 "OD copper wires. The magnetized PDC electrode is shaped as an open ring of diameter 1 "placed circumferentially around the ignition electrode in the plane of the fuel sample. Since the current is axial, the magnetic field from the high current is radial, parallel to the profile of the open-loop PDC electrode. The opposite unmagnetized PDC electrode is parallel to the direction of the ignition electrode and the high current; the radial magnetic field lines are thus perpendicular to this PDC electrode. The opposing PDC electrodes extend 2.5 "above and below the sample plane. The PDC voltage was measured across a standard 0.1 ohm resistor. The voltage corresponding to the PDC electrode after ignition is 25V.

E. Differential scanning calorimetry (DCS) of solid fuels

Solid fuels were tested for excess energy above the maximum theoretical value using a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter with Au coated crucibles, with representative results shown in table 7.

Table 7 exemplary DSC test results.

F. Spectroscopic identification of molecular hydrinos

20mg of Co in an aluminum DSC pan (aluminum crucible 30. mu.l, D: 6.7 × 3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6, 7, pressed, sealed (Setaram, S08/HBB37409))₃O₄Or 0.05ml (50mg) of H was added to CuO₂O and using Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder with a current come point of between 15,000 and 25,000A at approximately 8V RVSAnd (4) burning. A high power pulse was observed that evaporated each sample into an energetic, highly ionized, expanding plasma. The MoCu foil verification plate (50-50 atomic%, AMETEK, 0.020 "thick) was placed 3.5 inches from the center of the ignited sample so that the expanding plasma was incident on the surface to inject H₂(1/4) molecules are embedded in the surface.

Exposure to H-containing samples was observed using Thermo Scientific DXR SmartRaman with 780nm diode laser in macro mode₂(1/4) 40cm on MoCu foil after plasma^-1Broad absorption peak. This peak was not observed in the original alloy, and the peak intensity increased with increasing plasma intensity and laser intensity. Since no other element or compound is known to absorb 1.33eV (780nm laser energy minus 1950 cm)^-1) A single 40cm near the infrared ray^-1(0.005eV), H is considered to be present₂(1/4). Starting at 1950cm^-1Absorption peak of (2) with H₂(1/4) the free space rotational energy (0.2414eV) matches four significant figures, 40cm^-1Width matched orbital-nuclear coupled energy splitting [ Mills GUTCP ]]。

Match H₂(1/4) the absorption peak of the rotational energy is a true peak and cannot be explained by any known species. Excitation of the hydrino rotation can cause absorption peaks by the Inverse Raman Effect (IRE). Here, the continuum caused by the laser is absorbed and converted to a laser frequency, wherein the continuum is strong enough to preserve the rotating excited state population, thereby allowing the anti stokes energy contribution. Typically, for IRE, the laser power is very high, but the MoCu surface was found to cause Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS). For the transition from J ═ 1 to J ═ 0, to H₂(1/4) the Inverse Raman Effect (IRE) of the rotational energy assigns absorption. This result indicates that H₂(1/4) is a free rotor, which is H in a silicon matrix₂The case (1). The results on plasma exposed MoCu foils matched those previously observed on CIHT cells as reported in the Mill prior publication: R.Mills, J.Lotoski, J.Kong, G Chu, J.He, J.Trevey, High-Power-DensityCatalyst Induc, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by referenceed Hydrino Transition(CIHT)Electrochemical Cell(2014)。

Performing MAS on a sample of reaction products¹H NMR, electron beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy, the reaction product comprising a CIHT electrolyte, a CIHT electrode, and an inorganic compound getter KCl-KOH mixture placed in a sealed container that closes the CIHT cell.

MAS NMR of molecular fractional hydrogen trapped in a proton matrix represents a means of its identification by its interaction with the matrix using the characteristic properties of molecular fractional hydrogen. A unique consideration with respect to NMR spectroscopy is the possible molecular hydrino quantum states. Like H₂Excited state, molecular fraction hydrogen H₂(1/p) hasThe state of time. Even ifQuantum states also have a relatively large quadrupole moment and, in addition,the corresponding orbital angular momentum of the states causes magnetic moments [ Mills GUT ] that can cause displacement to high magnetic fields]. This effect is particularly advantageous when the matrix comprises exchangeable H, such as a matrix with water of hydration or an alkaline hydroxide solid matrix, among others₂The local interaction of (1/p) affects the larger particle number due to fast exchange. After exposure to the atmosphere inside the sealed CIHT cell, the CIHT cell getter KOH-KCl showed a shift of the MAS NMAR active component of the matrix (KOH) from +4.4ppm to about-4 to-5 ppm. For example, MAS NMR spectra of initial KOH-KCl (1:1) getters, from [ MoNi/LiOH-LiBr/NiO ] including gains of 2.5Wh, 80mA, 125% and 6.49Wh, 150mA, 185%, respectively]And [ CoCu (H perm)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO]The same KOH-KCl (1:1) indicates that the known low field peak of the OH matrix is shifted from about +4ppm to a high field region of about-4 ppm. The molecular hydrinos generated by the CIHT cell displace the substrate from positive to significantly high magnetic fields. Possible differences for the p-4 stateThe quantum number can cause different high electric field matrix shifts consistent with the observation of multiple of these peaks in the-4 ppm region. Consistent with previous observations, hydroxide ions (OH) when shifted to high magnetic fields^-) When acting as a free rotor, the MAS NMR peak of the HOH matrix is shifted to a high electric field by forming a complex with a molecule hydrino which can be violent. MAS NMR results were consistent with previous positive ion ToF-SIMS spectra, which showed a fraction of hydrogen as the structural moiety M: H₂(M＝KOH or K₂CO₃) A multimeric population of matrix compounds of (a). Specifically, include (such as K)₂CO₃KCl (30: 70% by weight) KOH and K₂CO₃The positive ion spectrum of the previous CIHT unit getter shows a complex with H as in the structure₂(1/p) Uniform K⁺(H₂:KOH)_nAnd K⁺(H₂:K₂CO₃)_n[R.Mills，XYu,Y.Lu，G Chu，J.He，J.Lotoski，“Catalyst induced hydrino transition(CIHT)electrochemical cell”，(2014)，International Journal of Energy Research]。

Molecular hydrinos are directly identified by their characteristically unusually high vibrational energies using Raman spectroscopy. Another distinguishing feature is that the selection rule for molecular hydrinos is different from that for ordinary molecular hydrinos. Like H₂Excited state, molecular hydrido havingA time-of-flight state in which the oblong spherical light field H₂(1/p); p 1,2, 3.., 137 has a spherical harmonic angular component of the quantum number relative to the semimajor axis [ Mills GUT]. These obround harmonic states permit targeting H₂A rotational transition of the excited state, Δ J ═ 0, ± 1, occurs during a pure vibrational transition without an electronic transition. The life of the angular state is sufficiently long that H₂(1/p) can be subject in particular to a pure form with the selection rule Δ J ═ 0, ± 1And (5) vibrating and rotating.

The emission-excited molecular hydrino state can be excited by high-energy electron collisions or by laser light, wherein p is due to²(J +1) rotational energy of 0.01509eV [ Mills GUT]Excitation of the spin state may not increase the population to a statistical thermodynamic population at ambient temperature, since the corresponding thermal energy is less than 0.02 eV. Therefore, the population distribution of the oscillatory states affects the excitation probability of the external source. In addition, due to the vibration energy p²0.515eV is 35 times higher than the rotation energy, resulting in that only the first level ν -1 is expected to be excited by an external source. The molecular hydrino state can withstand the quantum number at ambient temperatureAnd as the power is thermalized, the J quantum state may change during electron beam or laser irradiation. Thus, the initial state may beAny of, independent of J quantum number. Thus, the spin and spin-shake transitions are Raman and IR activities that allow branching at R, Q, P, where angular momentum is conserved between spin and electronic state changes. By passingThe de-excited vibration transitions υ 1 → υ 0 with rotational energy up-conversion (J ' -J ═ 1), down-conversion (J ' -J ═ 1), and unchanged (J ' -J ═ 0), allowed by the change in quantum number, give rise to P, R and the Q branch, respectively. The Q branch peak corresponds to the pure vibration transition υ 1 → υ 0; it is predicted that Δ J-0 is the maximum intensity of the rapid decrease in intensity of the P and R series with higher order transition peaks, where P branches are expected to have more peaks with higher intensity relative to R branches due to the available energy of the internal transitions. The effect of the matrix is expected to cause an energy displacement of vibrational energy from the free vibrator, and the matrix rotational energy barrier is expected to cause approximately the same energy displacement toward each of the P and R branch peaks as a non-zero of linear energy separation of the series of rotational peaksAnd (4) intercept.

Previously reported [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst induced moisture transfer (CIHT) electrochemical cell", (2014), "International Journal or energy Research]Trapping H in the lattice of getters of CIHT cell gases₂(1/4) emitting an incident 6keV electron gun at 5X 10^-6The torr pressure range was excited with a beam current of 8 μ Α and recorded by a windowless UV spectrum. By the same method, H trapped in the metal lattice of MoCu was observed by electron beam excitation emission spectroscopy₂(1/4). CIHT cell [ MoCu (50/50) (H penetration)/LiOH + LiBr/NiO ] with output of 5.97Wh, 80mA, 190% gain]MoCu anode of (2)₂An example of a resolved resonance spectrum (the so-called 260nm band) of (1/4) shows a peak maximum at 258nm with representative peak positions at 227, 238, 250, 263, 277 and 293nm with equal spacing of 0.2491 eV. These results are very well consistent with the respective transitions for the matrix displacement vibration and the free rotor rotation transitions H of υ 1 → υ 0 and Q (0), R (1), P (2) and P (3) ₂(1/4), wherein Q (0) is identifiable as the strongest peak of the series. The peak width (FWHM) was 4 nm. Expected relative to the normal H in the lattice₂H of (A) to (B)₂The transitions of (1/4) broaden because the energies involved are anomalous, 16 times higher, and couple significantly to the photonic bands of the lattice, resulting in broadening of the resonances. No 260nm band was observed on the MoCu starting material. The 260nm band was observed as a secondary Raman fluorescence spectrum from KOH-KCl crystals used as H when sealed in a CIHT cell₂(1/4) a getter such as the previously described [ R.Mills, XYu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst induced moisture transfer (CIHT) electrochemical cell", (2014), International Journal or Energy Research]. A band of 260nm was also observed on the CoCu anode.

Raman spectroscopy was also used to confirm H₂(1/4), where the latter is expected to dominate the population due to the large energy difference between neighbors and pairs. In the case that a given pair is even, forEven, a typical selection rule for pure rotational transitions is Δ J ± 2. However, the orbital-rotational angular momentum coupling, while preserving the angular momentum of the photons that excite the rotation level, causesThe quantum number is changed, whereinIn the case of a change in the quantum number, the frequency of the resonant photon energy is shifted with respect to the hyperfine energy converted through the orbital-atomic nucleus. In addition, forThe nuclei being aligned along the internuclear axis, e.g. Millsgut]Chapter 12 of (a). The rotation selection rule for the Stokes spectrum defined as initial state minus final state is Δ J' -J ═ -1, and the orbital small momentum selection rule isThe transition becomes allowed by preservation of angular momentum during the coupling of rotational and orbital angular momentum excitations [ Mills GUT]. Also, the expected intensity is not dependent on the nuclear spin.

Using Thermo Scientific DXR SmartRaman with 780nm diode laser in macro mode, it was observed that MoCu hydrogen penetrated 40cm above the anode after excess power was generated^-1Broad absorption peak. This peak was not observed in the original alloy, and the peak intensity increased with increasing excess energy and laser intensity. Furthermore, it appears from pre-and post-sonication that the only possible elements to be considered as sources are Mo, Cu, H and O, as confirmed by SEM-EDX. The sequence of the control compound had no regenerated peaks. Also in cells with Mo, CoCu and MoNiAl anodes (such as cells with 6.49Wh, 150mA, 186% gain output [ CoCu (H crossover)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO)]And a cell with an output of 2.40Wh, 80mA, 176% gain [ MoNiAl (45.5/45.5/9 wt%)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO]) A peak was observed. In a separate experiment, the KOH-KCl from these cells was getteredGas is given and assigned to H₂(1/4) a very strong fluorescent or photoluminescent series of oscillations. Since no other element or compound is known to absorb 1.33eV (780nm laser energy minus 2000 cm)^-1) A single 40cm near the infrared ray^-1(0.005eV), H is considered to be present₂(1/4). Starting at 1950cm^-1Absorption peak of (2) with H₂(1/4) the free space rotational energy (0.2414eV) matches four significant figures, 40cm^-1Width matched orbital-nuclear coupled energy splitting [ Mills GUTCP ]]。

Match H₂(1/4) the absorption peak of the rotational energy is a true peak and cannot be explained by any known species. Excitation of the hydrino rotation can cause absorption peaks by two mechanisms. First, the Stokes light is absorbed by the crystal lattice due to the strong interaction of the rotational fraction of hydrogen included as the crystal lattice. This is similar to the resonance broadening observed with the 260nm electron band. The second involves the known inverse Raman effect. Here, the continuum caused by the laser is absorbed and converted to a laser frequency, wherein the continuum is strong enough to preserve the rotating excited state population, thereby allowing the anti stokes energy contribution. In general, for IRE, the laser power is very high, but due to its non-zeroThe number of quanta and the corresponding selection rules, resulting in molecular hydrinos, may be a particular case. Furthermore, MoCu is expected to cause Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) due to the small size of the Mo and Cu grain boundaries of the metal mixture. Therefore, the results are discussed in the context of the latter mechanism.

For the transition from J ═ 1 to J ═ 0, to H₂(1/4) Inverse Raman Effect (IRE) of rotational energy assignment absorption [ Mills GUT [)]. This result indicates that H₂(1/4) is a free rotor, which is H in a silicon matrix₂The case (1). In addition, due to H₂(1/4) can form complexes with hydroxides (as indicated by MAS NMR and ToF-SIM) and due to H in the crystal lattice₂(1/4) local environmental effects at the site resulting in excitation of the emission spectrum and photoluminescence with the electron beamThe spectra observed the matrix shift, so IRE was expected to be equally shifted among different matrices and also shifted with pressure [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst Induced Hydrochloric Transfer (CIHT) electrochemical cell ], (2014), International Journal or Energy Research]. Likewise, H is included as a substrate₂The Raman peak of (a) shifts with pressure. Many examples were observed by Raman spectroscopic screening of metal and inorganic compounds. Ti and Nb appeared to start at 1950cm^-1About 20 counts of small absorbance peaks. Al shows a much larger peak. Examples of the inorganic compounds include compounds each exhibiting 2308cm^-1And 2608cm^-1LiOH and LiOH-LiBr of the peak of (1). Ball milling of LiOH-LiBr resulted in a large enhancement of the IRE peak and shifting it so that its center is at 2308cm^-1(like LiOH) and formed centered at 1990cm^-1The reaction of (1). By formation of H₂Ca (OH) of O₂2447cm was observed^-1Particularly strong absorption peaks. In Ca (OH)₂At 512 deg.C for dehydration or by reaction with CO₂Reaction, Ca (OH)₂Can be used to form H₂(1/4) in the presence of a catalyst. These are solid fuel type reactions for forming hydrinos, as previously reported [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "catalyzed hydrogen transfer (CIHT) electrochemical cell", (2014), International journal or Energy Research]. LiOH and Ca (OH)₂Both exhibit H₂(1/4) IRE Peak, and is commercially available from Ca (OH)₂With Li₂CO₃Formed by reaction. Thus, the Ca (OH) is rendered by ball milling₂+Li₂CO₃The mixture reacted and very strong H was observed₂(1/4) the center of IRE peak was 1997cm^-1。

After each of a series of solid fuel pellet ignitions, the indium foil was exposed to the product gas for 1 minute 50 solid fuel pellets were sequentially ignited in an argon atmosphere, each of which comprised 100mg of Cu +30mg of lift-off sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (70mg) (aluminum crucible 30. mu.l, D: 6.7 × 3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6, 7, pressed, sealed (Setaram, S08/HBB37409))And (5) sub-water. Each ignition of the solid fuel pellets was performed using a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder supplying short pulses of electrical energy in the form of a low voltage of 60Hz at about 8V RMS and a high current of about 15,000 to 25,000A. 1950cm observation was made using a ThermoScientific DXR SmartRaman with 780nm diode laser in macro mode^-1IRE peak. Peaks not observed in the original sample are assigned to H₂(1/4) rotating.

H as a product of solid fuel reactions has been previously reported₂(1/4)[R.Mills，X Yu，Y.Lu，G Chu，J.He，J.Lotoski，“Catalyst induced hydrino transition(CIHT)electrochemicalcell”，(2014)，International Journal of Energy Research；R.Mills，J.Lotoski，W.Good，J.He，“Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst”，(2014)]. The energy released by forming hydrinos according to equations (6-9) is shown to give rise to high kinetic energy H^-. The use can be carried out by decomposing Al (OH)₃And Li and H₂O and LiNH₂Reaction of (a) to form H and a solid fuel of HOH catalyst Li + LiNH₂+ dissociating agent Ru-Al₂O₃The energy release by confirming equation (9) is expressed as high kinetic energy H^-ToF-SIMS of (1) observes ions arriving before m/e. Other ions such as oxygen (m/e-16) do not show an early peak. The relationship between the time of flight T, the mass m and the acceleration voltage V is

Where a is a constant that depends on the ion flight distance. The kinetic energy imparted to the H species from the hydrino reaction is about 204eV matching the HOH catalyst reaction given by equation (6-9) according to the early peak observed at 3kV with m/e ═ 0.968. In the corresponding to H⁺The same early spectrum is observed in the positive mode of (a), but at a lower intensity.

XPS was performed on solid fuel. By Li, LiBr, LiNH₂Dissociating agent R-Ni (including about 2 wt% Al (OH))₃) And 1atm of H₂While XPS of formed LiHBr showed peaks at 494.5eV and 495.6eV of XPS spectra that could not be assigned to the reaction products of two different series of any known element. The only possible Na, Sn and Zn are easily excluded based on the absence of any other corresponding peaks of these elements, since only Li, Br, C and O peaks are observed. Peak matching is theoretically allowed to molecular fraction hydrogen H₂(1/4) double ionization Energy [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst induced moisture transfer (CIHT) electrochemical cell," (2014), International Journal or Energy Research]. Molecular hydrinos were further identified as products by Raman and FTIR spectroscopy. The Rama spectrum of LiHBr as a solid fuel product shows a center of 1994cm^-1H of (A) to (B)₂(1/4) absorption peak of inverse Raman effect. FTIR spectra of solid fuel product LiHBr indicated correlation with H₂(1/4) 1988cm with closely matched free rotor energy^-1New sharp peaks of (a). In addition, MAS NMR showed correlation with getter samples for other CIHT cells KOH-KCl (1:1) (such as including [ Mo/LiOH-LiBr/NiO ] exhibiting outputs to high electric field matrix peaks of 2.5Wh, 80mA, 125% gain at-4.04 and-4.38 ppm]Samples of CIHT cells of (1) and including [ CoCu (H crossover)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO ] exhibiting outputs to high electric field matrix peaks of 6.49Wh, 150mA, 186% gain of-4.09 and-4.34 ppm]Samples of CIHT cells) exhibited a consistent strong peak shift toward high electric fields.

Also against a gas such as [ MoCu (H Permeability)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO](1.56Wh, 50mA, 189% gain) and [ MoNi (H Permeability)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO](1.53Wh, 50mA, 190%) of the anodes of CIHT cells were subjected to XPS. A 496eV peak was also observed. Because other possibilities are excluded, a peak is assigned to H₂(1/4). In particular, in each case, the 496eV peak may not correlate with Mo1s because its intensity would be much smaller than the Mo 3p peak and energy would be higher than the observed energy, and it was not assigned to Na KLL because there was no Na1s in the spectrum.

Using a Scienta 300XPS spectrometer, the Lehigh University pair exhibited a strength of 1940cm after exposure to gas from solid fuel ignition^-1Indium metal getters for IRE peaks XPS was performed,the solid fuel comprised 100mg of Cu +30mg of deionized water sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (70mg) (aluminum crucible 30. mu.l, D: 6.7 × 3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6, 7, pressed, sealed (Setaram, S08/HBB 37409.) Observation was assigned to H₂(1/4) and may not be assigned to the 496eV peak of any known element.

Another successful cross-validation technique for searching hydrino spectra involves the use of Raman spectrometers in which H, matching a 260nm electron band, is observed as secondary fluorescence₂(1/4). With KOH-KCl (50-50 atomic%) and [ CoCu (H penetration)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO](6.49Wh, 150mA, 186% gain) versus current from the cell [ Mo,10 Bipolar plate/LiOH-LiBr-MgO/NiO](2550.5Wh, 1.7A, 9.5V, 234% gain), [ MoCu/LiOH-LiBr/NiO](3.5Wh, 80mA, 120% gain), [ MoNi/LiOH-LiBr/NiO](1.8Wh, 80mA, 140%) getter was performed and Raman spectra on the getter were recorded using Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRAM Aramis Raman spectrometer with a HeCd 325nm laser in microscope mode with magnification of 40X. In each case at 8000cm^-1To 18,000cm^-1A series of intensities of 1000cm were observed in the area^-1(0.1234eV) equi-energy spaced Raman peaks. Conversion of the Raman spectrum into a fluorescence or photoluminescence spectrum revealed H corresponding to the 260m band as first observed by electron beam excitation₂(1/4) [ R.Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J.He, J.Lotoski, "Catalyst induced moisture transfer (CIHT) electrochemical cell", (2014), International Journal or Energy Research]. Peak dominance for Q, R and P branches of the spectrum are at 12,199, 11,207, 10,191, 9141, 8100, 13,183, 14,168, 15,121, 16,064, 16,993 and 17,892cm, respectively^-1The observed Q (0), R (1), R (2), R (3), R (4), P (1), P (2), P (3), P (4), P (5) and P (6) are considered to be excited by the high-energy UV and EUV He and Cd emissions of a laser, wherein the laser optics are transparent to at least 170nm and a grating (with 1024 × 26 μm)²Labram amides 2400g/mm 460mm focal length system of a single pixel CCD) is dispersive and its maximum efficiency is on the shorter wavelength side of the spectral range (the same range as the 260nm band). For example, cadmiumH in KCl matrix with data based on electron beam excitation₂The spin-up of (1/4) excites an energy-matched strong line at 214.4nm (5.8 eV). The CCD is most responsive at 500nm, with the secondary region of the 260nm band centered at 520 m.

The photoluminescence band was also associated with NMR peaks shifted to high electric fields. For example, the KOH-KCl (1:1) getter from MoNi anode CIHT cells comprising [ MoNi/LiOH-LiBr/NiO ] with matrix peaks shifted to high electric field at-4.04 and-4.38 ppm and the KOH-KCl (1:1) getter from CoCu H penetrating anode CIHT cells comprising [ CoCu (H penetration)/LiOH-LiBr/NiO ] with matrix peaks shifted to high electric field at-4.09 and-4.34 ppm exhibited a series of photoluminescence peaks corresponding to 260nm electron beam.

Raman spectroscopy was performed on 1g KOH-KCl (1:1) getter samples that maintained a center distance 2 of 15 consecutive starts of separate solid fuel pellets, each comprising CuO (30mg) + Cu (10mg) + H (10mg) + H) sealed in aluminum DSC pans (aluminum crucible 30. mu.l, D: 6.7 × 3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lids D: 6, 7, pressed, sealed (Setaram, S08/HBB37409))₂O (14.5 mg). Samples of solid fuel were ignited with a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder that supplied short pulses of low voltage, high current electrical energy. The applied 60Hz voltage is about 8V peak and the peak current is about 20,000A. The getter sample was contained in an aluminum crucible covered by a polymer mesh wire that was tied around the crucible. The mesh prevents any solid reaction products from entering the sample while allowing gas to pass therethrough. A fifteenth individual solid fuel sample was fired in rapid succession and a cumulative 15 exposures of the getter sample were transferred to an Ar gas-tight isolation shield where it was uniformly mixed using a mortar and pestle. H within the transition upsilon-1 → upsilon-0 was observed using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRAM Aramis Raman spectrometer with a HeCd 325nm laser at a magnification of 40X in the microscope mode₂(1/4) two-stage rotating emission matched series of 1000cm^-1Equal energy spaced Raman peaks. Specifically, 12,194, 11,239, 10,147, 13,268, 14,189, 15,127, 16,065, 17,020 and 17,907cm, respectively^-1Observation ofMolecular hydrinos H confirmed by peaks Q (0), R (1), R (2), P (1), P (2), P (3), P (4) and P (5) branching to Q, R and P₂(1/4) is a source of energetic explosions of ignited solid fuels.

KCl (1:1) was heated at 250 ℃ for 15 minutes and cooled (control), then placed in a crucible and exposed to 50 consecutive ignitions of solid fuel pellets in an argon atmosphere at room temperature 50 solid fuel pellets were ignited sequentially in an argon atmosphere, these pellets each comprised 100mg of Cu +30mg of deionized water sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (70mg) (aluminum crucible 30. mu.l, D: 6.7 × 3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and aluminum lid D: 6, 7, press, seal (Setaram, S08/HBB37409))₂(1/4) second-order vibration spectrum 8000cm^-1To 18,000cm^-1A series of intensities of 1000cm were observed in the area^-1(0.1234eV) equal energy spacing the intensity in the Raman peaks increases.

Overall, Raman results (such as 0.241eV (1940 cm) were observed^-1) Peak of Raman inverse Raman effect and a Raman photoluminescence band spaced 0.2414eV matching the 260nm electron beam spectrum) is that the internuclear distance is H₂1/4 molecular fraction hydrogen of the internuclear distance (c). Evidence for the latter case is confirmed by being in a region of possible assignment of matrix peaks without known primary peaks or four significant digits consistent with theoretical predictions.

For the container is vacuumized to 5 × 10^-4Performing EUV spectroscopy on a solid fuel sample in a vacuum chamber of a Torr, the solid fuel sample comprising a NiOOH coated film: (<1mm thick) 0.08cm strip of cast coating, 11 wt.% carbon and 27 wt.% Ni powder²A nickel screen conductor. The material is constrained to Acme Electhe tri weld Company model 3-42-75,75KVA spot Welder was between two copper electrodes so that the horizontal plane of the sample was aligned with the optics of the EUV spectrometer as confirmed by the alignment laser. The sample is subjected to short pulses of low voltage, high current electrical energy. The applied 60Hz voltage was about 8V peak and the peak current was about 20,000A. EUV spectra were recorded using a McPherson grazing incidence EUV spectrometer (Model 248/310G) equipped with a platinum coated 600G/mm grating for blocking visible light and an aluminum (Al) (800nm thick, Luxel Corporation) filter. The incident angle is 87 °. The wavelength resolution at an entrance slot span of 100 μm is about 0.15nm at the center of the CCD and 0.5nm at the limit of the CCD wavelength range of 50 nm. The distance from the plasma source as the ignited solid fuel to the entrance of the spectrometer was 70 cm. EUV light was detected by a CCD detector cooled to-60 ℃. The CCD detector was centered at 35 nm. Continuum radiation in the region of 10 to 40nm was observed. After recording the explosion spectrum, the Al window was confirmed to be intact. Explosions outside the quartz window that blocked any EUV light by passing visible light appeared to confirm that the short wavelength continuum spectrum was not a flat spectrum due to scattered visible light passing through an Al filter. The high voltage helium pinch discharge spectrum shows He atoms and ion lines that are used only for wavelength correction of the spectrum. Thus, high energy light confirmation is a true signal. Since the maximum applied voltage is less than 8V, it is not possible to radiate energy of about 125eV due to field acceleration; furthermore, unknown chemical reactions can release more than a few eV. Newborn H₂The O molecule can be formed by accepting 81.6eV (m ═ 3) as a catalyst with a valence of 9²Energy cutoff sum of 122.4eV — 13.6eV(equations (32-33)) of short wavelength truncated continuous band emission. According to equations (43-47), the continuum radiation band in the 10nm region and up to longer wavelengths matches the theoretically predicted transition of H to the hydrino state H (1/4).

G. Water arc plasma power source based on H catalysis by HOH catalyst

H₂The O-arc plasma system includes an energy storage capacitor connected between a copper substrate-rod electrode and a concentric outer copper cylinder electrode containing water, wherein the rod of the substrate-rod electrode is below the water volume. The rods are built into the Nylon insulator sleeve in the cylindrical electrode portion and the Nylon barrier between the substrate and the cylinder. A volume of natural water is upstanding between the center pole electrode and the outer and circumferential poles. A capacitor bank comprising six capacitors (115nF, ± 10% 20kV DC, model m104a203B000) was connected in parallel by two copper plates, one lead of which was connected to ground and the other lead was connected to the substrate of the water arc cell. The capacitor bank was charged by a high voltage power source (Universal volts, 20kV DC, Model 1650R2) through a connection with a1 megaohm resistance and discharged by an air-to-air switch including stainless steel electrodes. The high voltage is in the range of about-8 kV to-14 kV. 4ml H in open cells tested₂Exemplary parameters for O are a capacitance of about 0.68 μ F, an intrinsic resistance of about 0.3 Ω, an Inner Diameter (ID) and depth of the cylindrical electrode of 0.5 inch and 2.5 inches, respectively, an Outer Diameter (OD) of the rod of 1/4 inches, a distance between the cylindrical electrode and the central rod of 1/8 ″, a charging voltage of about-8 kV to-14 kV, and a circuit time constant of about 0.2 μ s. Achieving H for high rate formation of hydrinos by triggering water arc discharge₂O is ignited, where the arc causes the formation of atomic hydrogen and HOH catalyst, which react to form hydrinos, spilling high power. By generating a whole H that will be 10 inches high₂The ultrasonic ejection of the O-content into the laboratory, high power is evident, where the ejected plume hits the roof.

The calorimetric measurements were performed using a Parr1341 flat jacketed calorimeter with a Parr 6775A data recording dual channel digital calorimeter and a Parr 1108 oxycombustion chamber, which was modified to allow the chemical reaction to be initiated with high current. The electrodes were ignited by feeding a copper rod comprising an 1/4 "Outside Diameter (OD) 12" copper cylinder through a sealed chamber and connected to an arc cell electrode. H₂The O-arc plasma cell was placed in a Parr explosion cell submerged in an internally added 200g of water with the remainder of the volume filled with air. Calorimeter instrumentThe water bath was loaded with 1,800g of natural water (according to Parr's handbook, Total H)₂O is 2,000) and the explosive cell is immersed in this water reservoir. The charge voltage of the capacitor was measured by a high voltage probe (CPS HVP-2520252-00-0012 calibrated to within 0.02% of the NIST reference probe) and displayed by a NIST traceable calibration Fluke 45 digital multimeter. The charging voltage of the capacitor measured with Fluke was confirmed by a high voltage probe (Tektronix 6015) and displayed by an oscilloscope. By passingThe input energy of the water arc cell plasma was calculated, where C is the capacitance of the capacitor bank and V is the voltage before the capacitor was discharged. The temperature of the bath was measured by a heat sensitive probe immersed in water.

The heat capacity of the calorimeter was calibrated by heating the bath with a resistor (10 ohms) and a DC constant power source. The heat capacity of the calorimeter is also calibrated with the same resistor and discharge current from the capacitor bank.

The heat capacity of the calorimeter was determined to be 10300J/K. In the applicant's experiments, the input energy was about 500J for 10 discharges, where C-0.68 μ F and V-12 kV. The corresponding output energy is about 800J.

Claims

1. A power system that generates at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising:

at least one container;

a reactant comprising:

a) at least one source of catalyst or containing nascent H₂A catalyst for O;

b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen;

c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; and

at least one set of electrodes for confining at least one hydrino reactant,

a power supply for delivering short pulses of high current electrical energy;

reloading the system;

at least one plasma-kinetic converter or at least one photovoltaic converter.

2. The power system of claim 1, wherein the vessel is capable of a pressure of at least one of atmospheric, above atmospheric, and below atmospheric.

3. The power system of claim 1 wherein the reactant comprises H₂A source of O and a conductive matrix for forming at least one of a source of catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen.

4. The power system of claim 3 including H₂The reactants of the source of O include at least one of: bulk phase H₂O except for bulk phase H₂State other than O, subjected to formation of H₂O and release of bound H₂One or more compounds of at least one of the reactions of O.

5. The power system of claim 4 wherein the bond H₂O comprises and H₂O-interactive compounds, wherein H₂O is in adsorption H₂O, bound H₂O, physical adsorption of H₂A state of at least one of O and hydration water.

6. The power system of claim 1 wherein the reactants comprise a conductor and one or more compounds or materials that undergo a release phase H₂O, adsorption of H₂O, bound H₂O, physical adsorption of H₂At least one of O and hydrated water and having H₂O as a reaction product.

7. The power system of claim 1 wherein nascent H₂At least one of the source of O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen comprises at least one of:

(a)H₂at least one source of O;

(b) at least one source of oxygen; and

(c) at least one source of hydrogen.

8. The power system of claim 1 wherein the reactants for forming at least one of the source of catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen comprise at least one of:

a)H₂o and H₂A source of O;

b)O₂、H₂O、HOOH、OOH^-peroxo ion, superoxide ion, hydride, H₂A halide, an oxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound, a hydrated compound selected from the group of at least one of a halide, an oxide, a hydroxide, an oxygen-containing compound; and

c) a conductive substrate.

9. The power system of claim 8, wherein the oxyhydrogen compound comprises at least one of the group consisting of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH;

the oxide comprises CuO and Cu₂O、CoO、Co₂O₃、Co₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃NiO and Ni₂O₃At least one of the group consisting of;

the hydroxide comprises Cu (OH)₂、Co(OH)₂、Co(OH)₃、Fe(OH)₂、Fe(OH)₃And Ni (OH)₂At least one of the group consisting of;

the oxygen-containing compound comprises sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate, perbromate, periodate, MXO₃、MXO₄(M ═ metal, such as alkali metals, such as Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X ═ F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li₂O, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO₄、ZnO、MgO、CaO、MoO₂、TiO₂、ZrO₂、SiO₂、Al₂O₃、NiO、FeO、Fe₂O₃、TaO₂、Ta₂O₅、VO、VO₂、V₂O₃、V₂O₅、P₂O₃、P₂O₅、B₂O₃、NbO、NbO₂、Nb₂O₅、SeO₂、SeO₃、TeO₂、TeO₃、WO₂、WO₃、Cr₃O₄、Cr₂O₃、CrO₂、CrO₃、CoO、Co₂O₃、Co₃O₄、FeO、Fe₂O₃、NiO、Ni₂O₃Rare earth oxide, CeO₂、La₂O₃At least one member selected from the group consisting of oxyhydroxide, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and

the conductive matrix comprises at least one of the group consisting of metal powder, carbon, carbide, boride, nitride, nitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile.

10. The power system of claim 1 wherein the reactants comprise a metal, a metal oxide thereof, and H₂O, wherein the metal is mixed with H₂Reaction of O thermodynamically speakingIs disadvantageous.

11. The power system of claim 1 wherein the reactants comprise a metal, a metal halide, and H₂O, wherein the metal is mixed with H₂The reaction of O is thermodynamically unfavorable.

12. The power system of claim 1 wherein the reactants comprise a transition metal, an alkaline earth halide, and H₂O, wherein the metal is mixed with H₂The reaction of O is thermodynamically unfavorable.

13. The power system of claim 1 wherein the reactants comprise a conductor, a hygroscopic material, and H₂A mixture of O.

14. The power system of claim 1 or 13, wherein the conductor comprises metal powder or carbon powder, wherein the metal or carbon is mixed with H₂The reaction of O is thermodynamically unfavorable.

15. The power system of claim 13 wherein the moisture absorbent material comprises lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, such as KMgCl₃·6(H₂O), ferric ammonium citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid, cellulose fibers, sugars, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, fertilizer chemicals, salt, desiccants, silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, molecular sieves, zeolites, deliquescent materials, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and deliquescent salts.

16. The power system of claim 15, the power systemComprising a conductor, a hygroscopic material and H₂O, wherein (metal), (hygroscopic material), (H)₂O) is in the range of about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and at least one of (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1).

17. The power system of claim 10, 11, 12 or 14 wherein the metal that is thermodynamically unfavorable for reaction with water is at least one of the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In.

18. The power system of claim 17 wherein H is added by adding H₂O to regenerate the reactants.

19. The power system of claim 1 wherein the reactants comprise a metal, a metal oxide thereof, and H₂O, wherein the metal oxide is capable of undergoing H at a temperature of less than 1000 ℃₂And (4) reducing.

20. The power system of claim 1 wherein the reactants comprise a mixture of:

is not easily heated by H₂A reduced oxide;

has a temperature of less than 1000 deg.C and can be H₂A metal reduced to an oxide of the metal, and

H₂O。

21. a power system according to claim 19 or claim 20 having a temperature below 1000 ℃ that can be H₂The metal reduced to the metal oxide is at least one member selected from the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr and In.

22. The power system of claim 20, wherein the coolant is not readily transported to the H with minimal heat₂The reduced metal oxide includes at least one of alumina, an alkaline earth oxide, and a rare earth oxide.

23. The power system of claim 1 wherein the solid fuel comprises carbon or activated carbon and H₂O, wherein by including the addition of H₂Rehydration of O regenerates the mixture.

24. The power system of claim 1 wherein the reactant comprises at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

25. The power system of claim 1 wherein H is₂The O mole% content can be in a range of at least one of approximately 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to 100%, 0.0001% to 100%, 0.001% to 100%, 0.01% to 100%, 0.1% to 100%, 1% to 100%, 10% to 100%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10%.

26. The power system of claim 1 wherein the current of the power source for delivering short pulses of high current electrical energy is sufficient to cause the hydrino reactants to undergo a reaction that forms hydrinos at a very high rate.

27. The power system of claim 1, wherein the power source for delivering short pulses of high current electrical energy comprises at least one of:

a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed voltage selected to result in a current in a range of at least one of 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, 10kA to 50 kA;

at 100A/cm²To 1,000,000A/cm²、1000A/cm²To 100,000A/cm²And 2000A/cm²To 50,000A/cm²DC or peak AC current density within a range of at least one of;

the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, wherein the voltage is given by the desired current multiplied by the resistance of a sample of the solid fuel or energetic material;

the DC or peak AC voltage can be in at least one range selected from about 0.1V to 500kV, 0.1V to 100kV, and 1V to 50kV, and

the AC frequency can be in the range of about 0.1Hz to 10GHz, 1Hz to 1MHz, 10Hz to 100kHz, and 100Hz to 10 kHz.

28. The power system of claim 1, wherein the electrical resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample is in at least one range selected from approximately 0.001 milli-ohms to 100 megaohms, 0.1 ohms to 1 megaohms, and 10 ohms to 1 kilo-ohms, and

the conductivity of a suitable load per electrode area effective for forming hydrinos is from about 10^-10ohm^-1cm^-2To 10⁶ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-5ohm^-1cm^-2To 10⁶ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-4ohm^-1cm^-2To 10⁵ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-3ohm^-1cm^-2To 10⁴ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-2ohm^-1cm^-2To 10³ohm^-1cm^-2、10^-1ohm^-1cm^-2To 10²ohm^-1cm^-2And 1ohm^-1cm^-2To 10ohm^-1cm^-2At least one selected range of (a).

29. The power system of claim 1 wherein the regeneration system comprises at least one of a hydration, thermal, chemical, and electrochemical system.

30. The power system of claim 1 wherein the photovoltaic power converter comprises a photon-to-electric power converter.

31. The method of claim 30, further comprising a light distribution system.

32. The power system of claim 31, further comprising a concentrated photovoltaic device.

33. The power system of claim 1, wherein the photovoltaic power converter comprises a photon-to-thermal power converter.

34. The power system of claim 33 further comprising a thermal-to-electric power converter.

35. The power system of claim 1, further comprising a concentrated solar power plant.

36. The power system of claim 1, further comprising a tracker.

37. The power system of claim 1, further comprising an energy storage device.

38. The power system of claim 1, wherein the power system is operably connected to an electrical grid.

39. The power system of claim 1, wherein the power system is a stand-alone system.

40. The power system of claim 1, wherein the photovoltaic power converter comprises a plurality of multijunction photovoltaic cells.

41. The power system according to claim 40 wherein the multijunction photovoltaic cell is a triple junction photovoltaic cell.

42. The power system of claim 1, wherein the photovoltaic power converter is located within a vacuum unit.

43. The power system of claim 1, wherein the photovoltaic power converter comprises at least one of an anti-reflective coating, a light-blocking matching coating, or a protective coating.

44. The power system of claim 1, wherein the photovoltaic power converter is operably coupled to a cleaning system configured to clean at least a portion of the photovoltaic power converter.

45. The powered system of claim 1, further comprising an optical filter.

46. The power system of claim 1, wherein the photovoltaic power converter comprises at least one of a single crystal cell, a polycrystalline cell, an amorphous cell, a string/ribbon silicon cell, a multijunction cell, a homojunction cell, a heterojunction cell, a p-i-n device, a thin film cell, a dye sensitized cell, and an organic photovoltaic cell.

47. The power system of claim 1, wherein the photovoltaic power converter comprises a multi-junction cell, wherein the multi-junction cell comprises at least one of an inverted cell, an upright cell, a lattice-mismatched cell, a lattice-matched cell, and a cell comprising a group III-V semiconductor material.

48. The power system of claim 1, further comprising

An output power regulator operably coupled to the photovoltaic power converter; and

an output power terminal operably coupled to the output power regulator.

49. The power system of claim 1, further comprising an inverter.

50. The power system of claim 1, further comprising an energy storage device.

51. The power system of claim 50, wherein a portion of the power output from the output power terminals is directed to the energy storage device.

52. The power system of claim 50, wherein a portion of the power output from the output power terminal is directed to a component of the power generation system.

53. The power generation system of claim 50 wherein a portion of the power output from the output power terminal is directed to the plurality of electrodes.

54. The power generation system of claim 50 wherein a portion of the power output from the output power terminal is directed to an external load.

55. The power generation system of claim 50 wherein a portion of the power output from the output power terminal is directed to a power grid.

56. A method of generating power, the method comprising:

supplying fuel to a region between the plurality of electrodes;

energizing the plurality of electrodes to ignite the fuel to form a plasma;

converting the plurality of plasma photons into electrical power with a photovoltaic power converter; and

outputting at least a portion of the power.

57. A method of generating power, the method comprising:

supplying fuel to a region between the plurality of electrodes;

energizing the plurality of electrodes to ignite the fuel to form a plasma;

converting the plurality of plasma photons into thermal power with a photovoltaic power converter;

converting the thermal power into electricity; and

outputting at least a portion of the power.

58. A method of generating power, the method comprising:

delivering a quantity of fuel to a fuel loading region, wherein the fuel loading region is located between a plurality of electrodes;

applying a current to the plurality of electrodes to at least about 2,000A/cm²Flowing an electric current through the fuel to ignite the fuel to generate at least one of plasma, light, and heat;

receiving at least a portion of the light in a photovoltaic power converter;

converting the light into a different form of power using the photovoltaic power converter; and

and outputting the different forms of power.

59. A water arc plasma power system, comprising:

at least one closed reaction vessel;

a reactant comprising H₂Source of O and H₂At least one of O;

at least one set of electrodes;

power supply for delivering H₂An initial high breakdown voltage of O and providing a subsequent high current;

a photovoltaic power converter; and

a heat exchanger system for a heat exchanger of a heat exchanger,

wherein the power system generates arc plasma, light and thermal energy.

60. A power generation system, comprising:

at least about 2,000A/cm²Or at least about 5,000kW of power;

a plurality of electrodes electrically coupled to the power source;

a fuel loading region configured to receive a solid fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to transfer electrical power to the solid fuel to generate a plasma; and

a photovoltaic power converter configured to receive a plurality of plasmonic photons.

61. A power generation system, comprising:

a power source configured to deliver at least about 5,000kW or at least about 2,000A/cm²The electric power of (1);

a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround a fuel, are electrically connected to the power source, and are configured to receive an electrical current for igniting the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable;

a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel; and

a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photons generated by igniting the fuel into a different form of power.

62. A power system, comprising:

a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein at least one electrode of the plurality of electrodes comprises a compression mechanism;

a fuel loading region configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel loading region, and wherein the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the power source and configured to supply power to the fuel received in the fuel loading region to ignite the fuel;

a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area; and

a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photons generated by igniting the fuel into non-photonic form of power.

63. A power generation system, comprising:

a plurality of electrodes;

a fuel loading region surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive a fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to ignite the fuel located in the fuel loading region;

a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area;

a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photons generated by igniting the fuel into non-photonic form power;

a removal system for removing a byproduct of the ignited fuel; and

a regeneration system operably coupled to the removal system for recycling the removed byproducts of the ignited fuel to a recycled fuel.

64. A power system, comprising:

a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the power source;

a fuel loading region configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when the fuel is received in the fuel loading region;

a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area;

a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert a plurality of photons generated by igniting the fuel into a non-photonic form of power,

a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and

a controller configured to control at least a process associated with the power generation system.

65. A power system, comprising:

a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area;

66. A power generation system, comprising:

a fuel loading region configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when the fuel is received in the fuel loading region, and wherein a pressure in the fuel loading region is a partial vacuum;

a transfer mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area; and

a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert a plurality of photons generated by igniting the fuel into a non-photonic form of power.

67. The power system of any one of claims 59 to 66, wherein the photovoltaic power converter is located within a vacuum unit.

68. The power system of claims 59 to 66, wherein the photovoltaic power converter comprises at least one of an anti-reflective coating, a light-blocking matching coating, or a protective coating.

69. The power system of claims 59 to 66, wherein the photovoltaic power converter is operably coupled to a cleaning system configured to clean at least a portion of the photovoltaic power converter.

70. The powered system of claims 59 to 66, further comprising an optical filter.

71. The power system of claims 59 to 66, wherein the photovoltaic power converter comprises at least one of a single crystal cell, a polycrystalline cell, an amorphous cell, a string/ribbon silicon cell, a multijunction cell, a homojunction cell, a heterojunction cell, a p-i-n device, a thin film cell, a dye sensitized cell, and an organic photovoltaic cell.

72. The power system according to claim 71 wherein the photovoltaic power converter comprises a multi-junction cell, wherein the multi-junction cell comprises at least one of an inverted cell, an upright cell, a lattice-mismatched cell, a lattice-matched cell, and a cell comprising a III-V semiconductor material.

73. A system configured to generate power, the system comprising:

a fuel source configured to supply fuel;

a power source configured to supply electrical power; and

at least one gear configured to receive the fuel and the electrical power, wherein the at least one gear selectively directs the electrical power to a localized area around the gear to ignite the fuel within the localized area.

74. The system of claim 73, wherein the fuel comprises a powder.

75. The system of claim 73, wherein the at least one gear comprises two gears.

76. The system of claim 73, wherein the at least one gear includes a first material and a second material having a lower electrical conductivity than the first material, the first material electrically coupled to the localized region.

77. The system of claim 73, wherein the local region is adjacent to at least one of a tooth and a gap of the at least one gear.

78. A method of generating power, the method comprising:

supplying fuel to the gear;

rotating the gear to position at least some of the fuel at a region of the gear;

supplying an electrical current to the gear to ignite the positioned fuel, generating energy; and

at least some of the energy generated by the ignition is converted into electricity.

79. The method of claim 78, wherein rotating the gear includes rotating a first gear and a second gear, and wherein supplying current includes supplying current to the first gear and the second gear.