NL2029651B1 - Method and supercapacitor system for storing energy, and energy storage system provided therewith - Google Patents
Method and supercapacitor system for storing energy, and energy storage system provided therewith Download PDFInfo
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- NL2029651B1 NL2029651B1 NL2029651A NL2029651A NL2029651B1 NL 2029651 B1 NL2029651 B1 NL 2029651B1 NL 2029651 A NL2029651 A NL 2029651A NL 2029651 A NL2029651 A NL 2029651A NL 2029651 B1 NL2029651 B1 NL 2029651B1
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- solution
- supercapacitor
- electrochemical cell
- supercapacitor system
- electrolyte solution
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Links
- 238000000034 method Methods 0.000 title claims abstract description 113
- 238000004146 energy storage Methods 0.000 title claims description 24
- 239000000243 solution Substances 0.000 claims abstract description 69
- 239000008151 electrolyte solution Substances 0.000 claims abstract description 66
- 150000001768 cations Chemical class 0.000 claims abstract description 48
- 150000001450 anions Chemical class 0.000 claims abstract description 46
- 238000007600 charging Methods 0.000 claims abstract description 40
- QGZKDVFQNNGYKY-UHFFFAOYSA-O Ammonium Chemical compound [NH4+] QGZKDVFQNNGYKY-UHFFFAOYSA-O 0.000 claims abstract description 10
- DGAQECJNVWCQMB-PUAWFVPOSA-M Ilexoside XXIX Chemical compound C[C@@H]1CC[C@@]2(CC[C@@]3(C(=CC[C@H]4[C@]3(CC[C@@H]5[C@@]4(CC[C@@H](C5(C)C)OS(=O)(=O)[O-])C)C)[C@@H]2[C@]1(C)O)C)C(=O)O[C@H]6[C@@H]([C@H]([C@@H]([C@H](O6)CO)O)O)O.[Na+] DGAQECJNVWCQMB-PUAWFVPOSA-M 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- WHXSMMKQMYFTQS-UHFFFAOYSA-N Lithium Chemical compound [Li] WHXSMMKQMYFTQS-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- ZLMJMSJWJFRBEC-UHFFFAOYSA-N Potassium Chemical compound [K] ZLMJMSJWJFRBEC-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- 229910052792 caesium Inorganic materials 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- TVFDJXOCXUVLDH-UHFFFAOYSA-N caesium atom Chemical compound [Cs] TVFDJXOCXUVLDH-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- 229910052744 lithium Inorganic materials 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- 229910052700 potassium Inorganic materials 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- 239000011591 potassium Substances 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- 229910052701 rubidium Inorganic materials 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- IGLNJRXAVVLDKE-UHFFFAOYSA-N rubidium atom Chemical compound [Rb] IGLNJRXAVVLDKE-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- 229910052708 sodium Inorganic materials 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- 239000011734 sodium Substances 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- 238000007599 discharging Methods 0.000 claims description 36
- OKTJSMMVPCPJKN-UHFFFAOYSA-N Carbon Chemical compound [C] OKTJSMMVPCPJKN-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 claims description 35
- 239000002002 slurry Substances 0.000 claims description 10
- 229910002804 graphite Inorganic materials 0.000 claims description 9
- 239000010439 graphite Substances 0.000 claims description 9
- QTBSBXVTEAMEQO-UHFFFAOYSA-M Acetate Chemical compound CC([O-])=O QTBSBXVTEAMEQO-UHFFFAOYSA-M 0.000 claims description 7
- BDAGIHXWWSANSR-UHFFFAOYSA-M Formate Chemical compound [O-]C=O BDAGIHXWWSANSR-UHFFFAOYSA-M 0.000 claims description 7
- XBDQKXXYIPTUBI-UHFFFAOYSA-M Propionate Chemical compound CCC([O-])=O XBDQKXXYIPTUBI-UHFFFAOYSA-M 0.000 claims 1
- 239000003792 electrolyte Substances 0.000 description 26
- SCVFZCLFOSHCOH-UHFFFAOYSA-M potassium acetate Chemical compound [K+].CC([O-])=O SCVFZCLFOSHCOH-UHFFFAOYSA-M 0.000 description 26
- 230000008901 benefit Effects 0.000 description 22
- 235000011056 potassium acetate Nutrition 0.000 description 13
- XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N water Substances O XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 13
- 230000001276 controlling effect Effects 0.000 description 12
- 238000009423 ventilation Methods 0.000 description 8
- 238000002474 experimental method Methods 0.000 description 7
- 238000007796 conventional method Methods 0.000 description 6
- 230000000694 effects Effects 0.000 description 6
- 230000005611 electricity Effects 0.000 description 6
- WFIZEGIEIOHZCP-UHFFFAOYSA-M potassium formate Chemical compound [K+].[O-]C=O WFIZEGIEIOHZCP-UHFFFAOYSA-M 0.000 description 6
- 230000001105 regulatory effect Effects 0.000 description 5
- VMHLLURERBWHNL-UHFFFAOYSA-M Sodium acetate Chemical compound [Na+].CC([O-])=O VMHLLURERBWHNL-UHFFFAOYSA-M 0.000 description 4
- 238000002484 cyclic voltammetry Methods 0.000 description 4
- 239000012528 membrane Substances 0.000 description 4
- 238000012544 monitoring process Methods 0.000 description 4
- 150000003839 salts Chemical class 0.000 description 4
- 239000001632 sodium acetate Substances 0.000 description 4
- 235000017281 sodium acetate Nutrition 0.000 description 4
- 239000007772 electrode material Substances 0.000 description 3
- 239000004744 fabric Substances 0.000 description 3
- 230000007062 hydrolysis Effects 0.000 description 3
- 238000006460 hydrolysis reaction Methods 0.000 description 3
- MWUXSHHQAYIFBG-UHFFFAOYSA-N nitrogen oxide Inorganic materials O=[N] MWUXSHHQAYIFBG-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 3
- CURLTUGMZLYLDI-UHFFFAOYSA-N Carbon dioxide Chemical compound O=C=O CURLTUGMZLYLDI-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 2
- RTAQQCXQSZGOHL-UHFFFAOYSA-N Titanium Chemical compound [Ti] RTAQQCXQSZGOHL-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 2
- 229910052799 carbon Inorganic materials 0.000 description 2
- 150000001875 compounds Chemical class 0.000 description 2
- 238000010277 constant-current charging Methods 0.000 description 2
- 238000005265 energy consumption Methods 0.000 description 2
- 230000007613 environmental effect Effects 0.000 description 2
- 239000002803 fossil fuel Substances 0.000 description 2
- 238000010438 heat treatment Methods 0.000 description 2
- 239000000463 material Substances 0.000 description 2
- 239000000203 mixture Substances 0.000 description 2
- 239000002904 solvent Substances 0.000 description 2
- 239000010936 titanium Substances 0.000 description 2
- 239000002699 waste material Substances 0.000 description 2
- USFZMSVCRYTOJT-UHFFFAOYSA-N Ammonium acetate Chemical compound N.CC(O)=O USFZMSVCRYTOJT-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- 239000005695 Ammonium acetate Substances 0.000 description 1
- MYMOFIZGZYHOMD-UHFFFAOYSA-N Dioxygen Chemical compound O=O MYMOFIZGZYHOMD-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- UFHFLCQGNIYNRP-UHFFFAOYSA-N Hydrogen Chemical compound [H][H] UFHFLCQGNIYNRP-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- 235000019257 ammonium acetate Nutrition 0.000 description 1
- 229940043376 ammonium acetate Drugs 0.000 description 1
- 239000003011 anion exchange membrane Substances 0.000 description 1
- 239000007864 aqueous solution Substances 0.000 description 1
- 238000010923 batch production Methods 0.000 description 1
- 239000001569 carbon dioxide Substances 0.000 description 1
- 229910002092 carbon dioxide Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 238000005341 cation exchange Methods 0.000 description 1
- 229910052729 chemical element Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 238000010281 constant-current constant-voltage charging Methods 0.000 description 1
- 238000010924 continuous production Methods 0.000 description 1
- 229910001882 dioxygen Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 239000012777 electrically insulating material Substances 0.000 description 1
- 238000012983 electrochemical energy storage Methods 0.000 description 1
- 238000001704 evaporation Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000002349 favourable effect Effects 0.000 description 1
- 239000006260 foam Substances 0.000 description 1
- 239000007789 gas Substances 0.000 description 1
- 230000003993 interaction Effects 0.000 description 1
- 229910052751 metal Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 239000002184 metal Substances 0.000 description 1
- 150000002739 metals Chemical class 0.000 description 1
- 238000012986 modification Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000004048 modification Effects 0.000 description 1
- 230000003647 oxidation Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000007254 oxidation reaction Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000010287 polarization Effects 0.000 description 1
- ZLMJMSJWJFRBEC-OUBTZVSYSA-N potassium-40 Chemical compound [40K] ZLMJMSJWJFRBEC-OUBTZVSYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- 239000002244 precipitate Substances 0.000 description 1
- 230000008569 process Effects 0.000 description 1
- 230000009467 reduction Effects 0.000 description 1
- 239000000126 substance Substances 0.000 description 1
- 229910052719 titanium Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 238000012549 training Methods 0.000 description 1
Classifications
-
- H—ELECTRICITY
- H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
- H01G—CAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES, LIGHT-SENSITIVE OR TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE DEVICES OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
- H01G11/00—Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
- H01G11/14—Arrangements or processes for adjusting or protecting hybrid or EDL capacitors
-
- H—ELECTRICITY
- H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
- H01G—CAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES, LIGHT-SENSITIVE OR TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE DEVICES OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
- H01G11/00—Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
- H01G11/08—Structural combinations, e.g. assembly or connection, of hybrid or EDL capacitors with other electric components, at least one hybrid or EDL capacitor being the main component
-
- H—ELECTRICITY
- H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
- H01G—CAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES, LIGHT-SENSITIVE OR TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE DEVICES OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
- H01G11/00—Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
- H01G11/54—Electrolytes
- H01G11/58—Liquid electrolytes
- H01G11/62—Liquid electrolytes characterised by the solute, e.g. salts, anions or cations therein
Landscapes
- Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
- Power Engineering (AREA)
- Microelectronics & Electronic Packaging (AREA)
- Chemical & Material Sciences (AREA)
- Chemical Kinetics & Catalysis (AREA)
- Electrochemistry (AREA)
- Electric Double-Layer Capacitors Or The Like (AREA)
Abstract
The invention relates to a method and system for storing energy in a system. The method comprises the steps of: — providing a supercapacitor system with an electrochemical cell, comprising: — a separator operatively coupled with the electrochemical cell to divide the electrochemical cell into at least two compartments, wherein the at least two compartments comprise an anode compartment and a cathode compartment; — at least two electrodes, wherein the first electrode is operatively coupled with the anode compartment and the second electrode is operatively coupled with the cathode compartment, and — a current and/or voltage source operatively coupled with the at least two electrodes, — providing an electrolyte solution to the electrochemical cell of the supercapacitor system, and — charging the supercapacitor system involving providing a current and/or voltage to the at least two electrodes and separating the electrolyte solution into a solution comprising a cation and a solution comprising an anion, including a terminal voltage which is equal to or more than 1.5 Volt, wherein the electrolyte solution comprises one or more cations selected from the group of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, ammonium.
Description
METHOD AND SUPERCAPACITOR SYSTEM FOR STORING ENERGY. AND ENERGY
STORAGE SYSTEM PROVIDED THEREWITH
The present invention relates to a method and supercapacitor system for storing energy, and an energy storage system provided therewith. Furthermore, the present invention relates to a building comprising said energy storage system.
Conventional electricity grid balancing methods and/or systems are often based on fossil fuel and/or nuclear power stations. It will be understood that said methods and/or systems, even when constructed according to the state of the art, provide undesired waste. For example. methods and/or systems based on fossil fuel emit gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Furthermore, methods and/or systems based on nuclear power produce nuclear waste.
Alternatively, electricity grid balancing methods and/or systems may be based on pumped- storage units and/or air storage systems in (underground) spaces. Said methods and/or systems are location depended and require a lot of space, are cost intensive, and are therefore limited in terms of applicability.
Additional problems of electricity grid balancing methods and/or systems based on batteries are the use of rare chemical elements in batteries and that batteries can only smoothen the energy consumption of the power grid rather than balancing the energy availability of the power grid. This problem is even bigger for large scale batteries used for energy storage.
An objective of the present invention is to provide a method for storing energy in a system, that obviates or least reduces the aforementioned problems and is more effective and/or efficient as compared to conventional methods and systems.
This objective is achieved with the method for storing energy in a system, wherein the method comprises the steps of: — providing a supercapacitor system with an electrochemical cell, comprising: — a separator operatively coupled with the electrochemical cell to divide the electrochemical cell into at least two compartments, wherein the at least two compartments comprise an anode compartment and a cathode compartment: — at least two electrodes, wherein the first electrode is operatively coupled with the anode compartment and the second electrode is operatively coupled with the cathode compartment; and — a current and/or voltage source operatively coupled with the at least two electrodes; — providing an electrolyte solution to the electrochemical cell of the supercapacitor system; and — charging the supercapacitor system involving providing a current and/or voltage to the at least two electrodes and separating the electrolyte solution into a solution comprising a cation and a solution comprising an anion, including a terminal voltage which may be equal to or more than 1.5 Volt, wherein the electrolyte solution comprises one or more cations selected from the group of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, ammonium.
The method according to the invention relates to storing energy in a system. Therefore, the method according to the invention may be performed to store energy and/or balance the power grid.
Furthermore, the method according to the invention enables constant current charging and/or constant voltage charging. Constant current charging is performed till a pre-defined maximum voltage per cell unit. This maximum voltage depends on the electrolyte and the chosen electrode materials and the temperature of operation.
The method according to the invention for storing energy in a system starts with providing a supercapacitor system with an electrochemical cell and providing an electrolyte solution to the electrochemical cell of the supercapacitor system. Preferably, the separator is a membrane, for example one or more selected from the group of cation exchange membrane, anion exchange membrane, bipolar membrane, and/or other suitable membranes. Said steps may be followed by the steps of charging the supercapacitor system involving providing a current and/or voltage to the at least two electrodes and separating the electrolyte solution into a solution comprising a cation and a solution comprising an anion, including a terminal voltage which is equal to or more than 1.5
Volt.
Providing a terminal voltage which is equal to or more than 1.5 Volt enables to store energy efficiently and effectively and/or with a higher capacity. It was found that separating the electrolyte solution into a solution comprising a cation and a solution comprising an anion, including a terminal voltage which is equal to or more than 1.5 Volt provides a method which may level peak loads of the power grid and/or local use. It is noted that local use may refer to individual buildings, streets, neighbourhoods, towns, factories, companies, and the like. In addition, limited investments in the power grid are required due to local storage of energy. Also, this may improve the possibilities to provide systems or buildings that are (more) self-sufficient (energy) and/or are stand-alone.
In addition, the electrolyte solution provided to the electrochemical cell of the supercapacitor system comprises one or more cations selected from the group of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, ammonium. It was found that an electrolyte selected from said group achieved an efficient and effective method for storing energy in a system.
Another advantage of the cations of said group is that these are readily available and harmless to the environment. These are in particular harmless to the environment compared to d-
block metals. Therefore, the overall safety of the method according to the invention is increased compared to conventional methods for storing energy in a system.
Furthermore, the electrolyte solution comprising one or more cations selected from the group of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, ammonium, increases the terminal voltage. In other words, the salt content of the electrolyte solution increases the terminal voltage that can be applied, while hydrolysis of water 1s prevented (2H,O > 2H, + 03). Therefore, a stable electrolyte is achieved.
Optionally, a batch or continuous process may be performed.
An advantage of the method according to the invention is that energy may be stored for a short. medium, or long period of time. For example, the method according to the invention enables to store energy in the range of minutes to months. As a result, the method according to the invention may store energy when a surplus is available and provide energy when a shortage in energy occurs. In other words, the method according to the invention enables to balance the power grid, even in different time scales.
For example, the method according to the invention enables to level the energy consumption between day and night and/or between different seasons, such as spring and winter.
Another advantage of the method according to the invention is that the method may be performed close at or near by the location the energy is generated, such as solar energy parks, windmill energy parks and the like. As a result, a surplus of energy may be stored close to an end user. In addition, storing energy locally reduces energy loss during discharging of the energy storing system. Therefore, the method according to the invention reduces the impact of energy balancing on the power grid.
In a preferred embodiment, the electrolyte has a viscosity of at most 100 mPa-s, preferably the electrolyte has a viscosity of at most 50 mPa-s, more preferably the electrolyte has a viscosity of at most 10 mPa:s, most preferably the electrolyte has a viscosity of at most 1.5 mPa-s.
It was found that the electrolyte comprising one or more cations selected from the group of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, ammonium enables said viscosity.
The method according to the invention has a low risk to failure, and is safe for both user and environment. Therefore, the method according to the invention may be performed by an operator orend user. This enables easy access to the method according to the invention.
Yet another advantage of the method according to the invention is that this method according to the invention is more environmental friendly compared to conventional methods for storing energy in a system. For example, conventional storage systems may include a lead to enable energy storage. A meltdown of thermic runaway of said conventional storage may result in exposure of lead to the (direct) environment.
In a preferred embodiment according to the invention, the electrolyte solution comprises one or more anions selected from the group of formate, acetate, proprionate.
It was found that one or more anions selected from the group of formate, acetate, proprionate provides an efficient and effective method for storing energy in a system. Furthermore, the combination of cations selected from the group of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, ammonium and anions selected from the group of formate, acetate, proprionate provides an electrolyte which is environmental friendly and harmless for the environment. In fact, said electrolyte may be biodegradable.
An advantage of said anions is that these are not halogenated. As a result, these anions are less harmful for the environment and less flammable (in particular electrolytes comprising fluorinated compound) compared to conventional electrolytes. In addition, the electrolytes comprising fluorinated compounds are expensive compared to an electrolyte solution comprises one or more anions selected from the group of formate, acetate, proprionate.
Yet another advantage of the method according to the invention is that the method may be operated by an end user and that said end user does not require specific (chemical) training. As a result, the method according to the invention may be widely used and is easy accessible.
Another advantage of the electrolyte solution is that the dissolved salt, formed by the cation and the anion, hardly precipitates in the solution and/or within the supercapacitor system. As a result, decay of the supercapacitor system is reduced or even prevented. Therefore, the method according to the invention, including charging and discharging, may be performed many times.
Preferably, the electrolyte solution consists of one or more cations selected from the group of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, ammonium and one or more anions selected from the group of formate, acetate, proprionate.
In a preferred embodiment, the electrolyte solution comprises potassium acetate and/or sodium acetate.
It was found that an efficient and effective method for storing energy in a system was achieved. An advantage of potassium acetate and/or sodium acetate is that it is harmless for the environment and readily available. Furthermore, potassium acetate and/or sodium acetate is relatively cheap compared to other electrolytes. As a result, the operating costs of the method according to the invention are similar or even lower compared to conventional methods.
In yet another preferred embodiment according to the invention, the terminal voltage may be in the range of 1.5 Volt to 6 Volt, preferably the terminal voltage may be in the range of 2 Volt to 5
Volt, more preferably the terminal voltage may be in the range of 2 Volt to 4 Volt.
Providing a terminal voltage in the range of 1.5 Volt to 6 Volt, preferably in the range of 2
Volt to 5 Volt, more preferably in the range of 2 Volt to 4 Volt prevents or reduces water splitting
(hydrolysis of water). As a result said terminal voltage enables an efficient and effective storage of energy in a system.
The salt content of the electrolyte solution of the method according to the invention increases the terminal voltage that can be applied, while hydrolysis of water is prevented (2H:0 > 5 2H: + Oy). Therefore, a higher terminal voltage of the supercapacitor system is achieved.
In addition, said terminal voltage increases the charging rate and/or discharging rate of the energy storage system. Therefore, said method is enabled for balancing the power grid.
In yet another preferred embodiment according to the invention, the molality of the electrolyte solution may be in the range of 20 molal to 100 molal. preferably the molality of the electrolyte solution may be in the range of 30 molal to 100 molal, more preferably the molality of the electrolyte solution may be in the range of 40 molal to 100 molal, and most more preferably the molality of the electrolyte solution may be in the range of 40 molal to 80 molal.
The molality of the electrolyte solution in the range of 20 molal to 100 molal, preferably the molality of the electrolyte solution in the range of 30 molal to 100 molal, more preferably the molality of the electrolyte solution in the range of 40 molal to 100 molal, and most more preferably the molality of the electrolyte solution in the range of 40 molal to 80 molal enables the method according to the invention to be performed at temperatures in the range of -60 °C to 150 °C.
Therefore, the method according to the invention is not bound to a specific geographic location and may be performed anywhere. This enables to provide an energy storage system and perform the method according to the invention within crowded areas such as cities, as well remote areas.
Another advantage of said molality range is that water is substantially not evaporating.
Therefore, the method according to the invention is labour efficient.
In yet another preferred embodiment according to the invention, the method further comprises the step of transporting the solution comprising the cation and/or the solution comprising the anion from the electrochemical cell to a storage. Preferably, the step of transporting may be performed after the step of charging the supercapacitor system. More preferably, the method according to the invention comprises the step of storing the solution comprising a cation and/or the solution comprising an anion.
Transporting the solution comprising the cation and/or the solution comprising the anion from the electrochemical cell to a storage enables to process a larger amount of the electrolyte solution. Therefore, the storage capacity of the supercapacitor system increases and thus the supercapacitor may provide more energy in the discharging state.
Furthermore, transporting the solution comprising the cation and/or the solution comprising the anion from the electrochemical cell to a storage enables a continuous or semi-continuous system. As a result, the electrochemical cell may be relatively small compared to a batch/standalone system. Therefore, the return on investment ratio is favourable for a continuous system and the method according to the invention may easily be performed locally.
Another advantage of the step of transporting the solution comprising the cation and/or the solution comprising the anion from the electrochemical cell to a storage is that multiple electrochemical cells may be coupled in series and/or in parallel. As a result, the throughput of the electrolyte solution is increased.
Yet another advantage of the step of storing is that a supercapacitor system may be achieved with a large capability to store energy. Furthermore, storing energy increases the capability to balance the power grid.
In vet another preferred embodiment according to the invention, wherein the method further comprises the step of discharging the supercapacitor system involving combining the solution comprising a cation and solution comprising an anion. Preferably, the step of discharging the supercapacitor system may be performed after the step of charging the supercapacitor system.
It is noted that to provide energy from the supercapacitor system to a user or power grid and the like the method according to the invention may comprise the step of discharging.
An advantage of the step of discharging is that the stored energy may be released in a controllable manner. Therefore, the power grid or use by an end user is not overpowered.
In vet another preferred embodiment according to the invention, the method further comprises the step of providing a capacitive slurry to the at least two compartments.
It was found that a capacitive slurry increases the charging rate and/or discharging rate of the supercapacitor system. Therefore, the method according to the invention enables efficient and effective energy storage and delivery of energy to an end user or power grid.
In a preferred embodiment, the method according to the invention comprises the step of measuring and/or monitoring. Said step enables to monitor the charging and discharging of the supercapacitor system. This allows an operator or computer to dedicate the supercapacitor system to its use.
In a further preferred embodiment, the method according to the invention comprises the step of controlling the charging and/or discharging of the supercapacitor system. Said step enables to control the supercapacitor system and prevents the system of overcharging and may allow to switch between the charging and discharging state. Preferably, the step of controlling the charging and/or discharging of the supercapacitor system comprise the step of measuring the water activity.
The step of controlling the charging and/or discharging of the supercapacitor system enables to measure the charging and/or discharging rate. Furthermore, the step of controlling the charging and/or discharging of the supercapacitor system comprise the step of measurmg the water activity.
This enables to monitor the performance of the supercapacitor system and enables the step of adding salt to the electrolyte solution.
A further advantage is that the efficiency of the method according to the invention may be secured and consolidated.
In yet another preferred embodiment according to the invention, the step of providing an electrolyte solution to the electrochemical cell of the supercapacitor system comprises the step of continuously providing an electrolyte solution to the electrochemical cell of the supercapacitor system.
An advantage of continuously providing an electrolyte solution to the electrochemical cell of the supercapacitor system is that an efficient and effective charging and/or discharging may be achieved, wherein the electrochemical cell is relatively small. Furthermore, this enables to store the solution comprising cations and solution comprising anions separately.
In vet another preferred embodiment according to the invention, the electrolyte solution may be an aqueous electrolyte solution.
It was found that an aqueous electrolyte solution provides efficient and effective charging and/or discharging of the supercapacitor system. For example, the electrolyte comprises good solubility in water.
In addition, using water as solvent for dissolving the electrolyte has as advantage that it is harmless as solvent and that is does hardly evaporate when comprising the dissolved electrolyte.
In vet another preferred embodiment according to the invention, the temperature in the supercapacitor system may be in the range of -60 °C to 0 °C, preferably the temperature may be in the range of -40 °C to 0 °C, more preferably the temperature may be in the range of -20 °C to -5 °C.
It was found that the temperature in the supercapacitor system in the range of -60 °C to 0 °C, preferably the temperature in the range of -40 °C to 0 °C, more preferably the temperature in the range of -20 °C to -5 °C, provides efficient and effective charging and discharging. Therefore, the method according to then invention is suitable for performing in environments with (very) low temperatures. In fact, the method according to the invention is not limited to (very) low temperatures. As a result, the method according to the invention may be performed without the supercapacitor system being frozen, and thus enables to perform the method according to the invention in environments with (very) low temperatures.
In addition, it was found that the performance of the supercapacitor system and performance of the method according to the invention at (very) low temperatures is better compared to convention methods and systems under similar conditions.
In yet another preferred embodiment according to the invention, the temperature in the supercapacitor system may be in the range of 80 °C to 150 °C, preferably the temperature may be inthe range of 90 °C to 130 °C, more preferably the temperature may be in the range of 100 °C to 120 °C.
It was found that the temperature in the supercapacitor system in the range of 80 °C to 150 °C, preferably the temperature in the range of 90 °C to 130 °C, more preferably the temperature in the range of 100 °C to 120 °C, provides efficient and effective charging and discharging,
Therefore, the method according to then invention is suitable for performing in environments with relatively (high) temperatures. In fact, the method according to the invention is not limited to high temperatures.
Furthermore, it was found that especially at elevated temperature levels up to 80 °C, the electrical round-trip efficiency is significantly improved compared to conventional methods.
Preferably, when ammonium is used as cation, the water activity is lowered. This enables to operate the method according to the invention at elevated temperatures (temperatures including 80 °C to 150 °C), and charging the supercapacitor system includes a terminal voltage which may be equal to or more than 1.5 Volt.
In yet another preferred embodiment according to the invention. the method comprises the step of As a result, the method according to the invention is not limited to temperature. It is known that conventional methods and systems are limited to a small temperature range.
The mvention also relates to a supercapacitor system for storing energy with an electrochemical cell. comprismg: — a separator operatively coupled with the electrochemical cell to divide the electrochemical cell into at least two compartments, wherein the at least two compartments comprise an anode compartment and a cathode compartment: — at least two electrodes operatively coupled with the supercapacitor system; and — a current and/or voltage source operatively coupled with the at least two electrodes, wherein the system is configured for operating the method according to the invention.
The system provides the same or similar effects and advantages as those described for the method.
A further advantage of the system according to the invention is that it may be compact and therefore be placed close to the place of use. This results in reducing efficiency loss due to transportation of electricity via a power grid. Additionally, the supercapacitor system according to the invention enables to store locally produced energy.
For example, the supercapacitor system according to the invention may be placed nearby solar panels, windmills, and the like. Therefore, said system enables to balance the power grid locally and said power grid is less depended on widely spread fluctuations of the power grid laid down in a great area.
Furthermore, the supercapacitor system according to the invention may be used in remote areas. Therefore, the problem of providing a power grid or electricity cable to said remote areas is overcome. It is noted that providing said power grid or electricity cable to a remote area may be expensive.
In a preferred embodiment according to the invention, the supercapacitor system further comprises a regulator operatively coupled with the electrochemical cell, configured for regulating the temperature in the supercapacitor system, preferably configured for regulating the temperature in the at least two compartments.
Regulating the temperature in the at least two compartments enables the system to operate at the desired/optimal temperature. As a result, the energy storage may be performed efficiently and effectively.
In vet another preferred embodiment according to the invention, at least one electrode is an activated carbon electrode or graphite electrode.
It was found that at least one electrode made of activated carbon electrode or graphite increases the efficiency and effectiveness of the supercapacitor system according to the invention.
Preferably, at least two electrodes are made of activated carbon electrode or graphite.
In a further preferred embodiment, the electrode may be a porous electrode, preferably a graphite foam electrode. Said electrode provides a low resistance. Therefore, an efficient and effective method for storing energy in a system according to the invention may be achieved.
In vet another preferred embodiment according to the invention, the supercapacitor system further comprises a tank configured for storing the solution comprising a cation and/or a tank configured for storing the solution comprising an anion, wherein one or both tanks are operatively coupled with the electrochemical cell.
Providing a tank configured for storing the solution comprising a cation and/or a tank configured for storing the solution comprising an anion enables to have a relatively small electrochemical cell. Therefore, the supercapacitor system may be compact and have a large storing capacity.
Another advantage of a tank configured for storing the solution comprising a cation and/or a tank configured for storing the solution comprising an anion is that the efficiency of charging and/or discharging is increased due to efficient interaction between the solution comprising a cation and solution comprising an anion.
The invention also relates to an energy storage system comprising the supercapacitor system according to the invention.
The energy storage system provides the same or similar effects and advantages as those described for the method and supercapacitor system.
The invention also relates to a building comprising energy storage system according to the invention.
The building provides the same or similar effects and advantages as those described for the method, supercapacitor system, and energy storage system.
In a preferred embodiment according to the invention, the supercapacitor system for storing energy with an electrochemical cell according to the invention comprises a capacity of 2.5 MW.
For example, a solar power park of 10 MW may provide energy to the supercapacitor system according to the invention to cover fluctuation in energy availability between day and night.
Preferably, the supercapacitor system is adjusted in a sea container. This enables a modular supercapacitor system.
Further advantages, features and details of the invention are elucidated on the basis of preferred embodiments thereof, wherein reference is made to the accompanying drawings, in which: — Figure | shows a schematic overview of a method according to the invention; — Figure 2 shows a schematic overview of a batch system according to the invention; — Figure 3 shows a schematic overview of a (semi) continuous system according to the invention; — Figure 4 shows a schematic overview of the (semi) continuous system comprising a carbon slurry according to the invention; — Figure 5 shows a cyclic voltammogram of an energy storage system with 30 molal potassium acetate and Activated Carbon Cloth; and — Figure 6 shows a charge and discharge curve of the supercapacitor system comprising 30 cycles.
Method 10 (Figure 1) for storing energy in a system follows a sequence of different steps.
In the illustrated embodiment method 10 starts with step 12 of providing a supercapacitor system with an electrochemical cell. Step 12 is followed by step 14 of providing an electrolyte solution to the electrochemical cell of the supercapacitor system. Said electrolyte solution enables charging the supercapacitor system. Optionally, step 14 includes step 15 of continuously providing an electrolyte solution to the electrochemical cell of the supercapacitor system. Step 14 is followed by step 16 of charging the supercapacitor system involving providing a current and/or voltage to the at least two electrodes and separating the electrolyte solution into a solution comprising a cation and a solution comprising an anion, including a terminal voltage which is equal to or more than 1.5 Volt.
In an alternative illustrated embodiment (Figure 1), step 12 and/or step 14 is/are followed by step 18 of providing a capacitive slurry to the at least two compartments.
In the illustrated embodiment (Figure 1) step 16 may be followed by step 20 of discharging the supercapacitor system involving combining the solution comprising a cation and solution comprising an anion.
In an alternative illustrated embodiment (Figure 1), step 16 may be followed by step 22 of transporting the solution comprising the cation and/or the solution comprising the anion from the electrochemical cell to a storage. The solution comprising the cation and/or the solution comprising the anion may be stored by step 24 of storing the solution comprising a cation and/or the solution comprising an anion.
In an alternative illustrated embodiment (Figure 1) step 16 and/or step 20 may be measured and/or monitored by measuring step 26 and/or controlled by controlling step 28.
In an illustrated embodiment supercapacitor system 30 (Figure 2) comprises electrochemical cell 32, wherein electrochemical cell 32 is separated by separator 34 into compartment 36 and compartment 38. In the illustrated embodiment compartment 36 is an anode compartment and compartment 38 is a cathode compartment. Furthermore, supercapacitor system 30 comprises two electrodes, negative electrode (anode) 40 and positive electrode (cathode) 42.
In use, supercapacitor system 30 is provided with electrolyte 44, wherein in the charged state, cations 46 may diffuse to compartment 36 and anions 48 may diffuse to compartment 38.
Furthermore, supercapacitor system 30 may further comprise isolating bottom 50 and measuring device 51, wherein measuring device 51 is configured for measuring and/or monitoring the charging and/or discharging of supercapacitor system 30. Supercapacitor system 30 further comprises controlling device 49 configured for controlling the charging and/or discharging of supercapacitor system 30.
Another illustrated embodiment supercapacitor system 52 (Figure 3) comprises electrochemical cell 54, wherein electrochemical cell 54 is separated by separator 56 into compartment 58 and compartment 60. In the illustrated embodiment compartment 58 is an anode compartment and compartment 60 is a cathode compartment. Furthermore, supercapacitor system 52 comprises two electrodes, negative electrode (anode) 62 and positive electrode (cathode) 64.
In use, supercapacitor system 52 may is provided with electrolyte 66, wherein in the charged state, cations 68 may diffuse to compartment 58 and anions 70 may diffuse to compartment 60.
Furthermore, supercapacitor system 52 comprises tank 72 configured for holding solution 74 comprising cations and tank 76 configured for holding solution 78 comprising anions. Preferably. tank 72 comprises ventilation 80 and tank 76 comprises ventilation 82. Ventilation 80 and ventilation 82 are configured for ventilating tank 72 and tank 76 respectively. In the illustrated embodiment pumps 84 and 86 enable, together with pipes or tubes 88, 90, 92, 94, that supercapacitor system 52 may operate in a (semi-)continuous manner. Supercapacitor system 52 further comprises measuring device 95 configured for measuring and/or monitoring the charging and/or discharging of supercapacitor system 52, and/or controlling device 97 configured for controlling the charging and/or discharging of supercapacitor svstem 52.
In vet another illustrated embodiment supercapacitor system 102 (Figure 4) comprises electrochemical cell 104, wherein electrochemical cell 104 is separated by separator 106 into compartment 108 and compartment 110. In the illustrated embodiment compartment 108 is an anode compartment and compartment 110 is a cathode compartment. Furthermore, supercapacitor system 102 comprises two electrodes, negative electrode (anode) 112 and positive electrode (cathode) 114.
In use, supercapacitor system 102 is provided with electrolyte 116 and activated carbon slurry 117, wherein in the charged state, cations 118 may diffuse to compartment 108 and anions 120 may diffuse to compartment 110. Furthermore, supercapacitor system 102 comprises tank 122 configured for holding solution 124 comprising cations and tank 126 configured for holding solution 128 comprising anions. Preferably, tank 122 comprises ventilation 130 and tank 126 comprises ventilation 132. Ventilation 130 and ventilation 132 are configured for ventilating tank 122 and tank 126 respectively. Pumps 134 and 136 enable, together with pipes or tubes 138, 140, 142, 144, that supercapacitor system 102 is capable of operating in a (semi)continuous manner.
Supercapacitor system 102 further comprises measuring device 145 configured for measuring and/or monitoring the charging and/or discharging of supercapacitor system 102, and/or controlling device 147 configured for controlling the charging and/or discharging of supercapacitor system 102.
Further experiments showed that an energy storage system was made using Activated
Carbon Cloth as capacitive electrodes as capacitive material for the storage of anions and cations.
The current collector was made of an mert material like graphite or graphite paper or titanium mesh or titanium plate. The electrolyte was composed of 30 molal potassium acetate. This 30 molal potassium acetate was prepared by dissolving 295 potassium acetate in 100 g of demineralized water by slowly heating the mixture. The mixture resulted in a transparent solution.
The capacitive behaviour was tested in a cell voltage range (terminal voltage) of 0 till 3 Volt using a two-electrode configuration. The cyclic voltammogram is shown in Figure 5. The energy storage system was flushed with the electrolyte solution.
Figure 5 comprises the cyclic voltammogram, wherein the top line at 1 Volt represents the charging of the energy storage system, and the bottom line at 1 Volt represent the discharging of the energy storage system. Furthermore, said cyclic voltammogram comprises cell voltage (V) on the x-axis versus current density (A/m?) on the v-axis.
Figure 6 shows Ccyles of OCV 10 s; Charge 10mA 200s or till 2.0V: OCV 10 s; Discharge 20 s 10mA; OCV 10 s; 30 cycles; 30mKAc: Pt-Ti flat current collector; Activated Carbon Cloth 4 layers per electrode: Charge current is positive: Discharge current 1s negative. The energy cell (Ecell) over Volt versus time is displayed on the left side of the figure and the I/'mA versus time is displayed in the left side of the figure.
Experiments showed that the solubility of potassium acetate (KAc), ammonium acetate (NH:Ac), and sodium acetate (NaAc) provides an efficient and effective electrolyte (Table 1).
Table 1: solubility in grams and mole of different electrolytes in water
Temperature | g KAc/ g NHsAc/ | gNaAc/ mol KAc/ | mol NHsAc | mol NaAc/ (°C) 100 mL 100 mL 100 mL 1000 mL /1000mL | 1000 mL
HO HO H:0 H:0 H:0 HO us | [sa [4 30 | 283 |L 546 | 2888 | | 666 80 | 381 ff 15s | 388 | | 1865
Tw [Tw [am
A further experiment showed that the polarizable window (terminal voltage), defined as the voltage window with negligible water splitting, ranges up to 2 Volt for highly concentrated potassium acetate solution of 30 molal and to 3 Volt for highly concentrated potassium formate of 40 molal to 80 molal. The used current collectors for the activated carbon of graphite electrodes may be chemically inert and electrochemically inactive. Preferably, the polarizable window depends on the combination of the highly concentrated aqueous solutions of potassium acetate and potassium formate and the chosen electrode materials. These electrode materials may be inert towards oxidation and reduction.
In a further experiment, the supercapacitor system comprises capacitive electrodes with a flow-through electrolyte solution. The (aqueous) electrolyte solution is defined as highly concentrated potassium acetate solution of 30 molal or potassium formate solution of 40 molal to 80 molal. The flow-through system minimizes electrode polarization and enables (extreme) fast charging of the energy storage system. Charging may be performed at constant voltage mode or at constant current mode with a pre-defined maximum allowable cell voltage to prevent hydrogen gas and oxygen gas evolution. The method and supercapacitor system according to the invention are, in this experiment, operated as a flow-through energy capturing cell using capacitive electrodes and operated in constant voltage mode and using the 30 molal potassium acetate of the 40 molal to 80 molal potassium formate.
The potassium formate concentration of 80 molal is obtained by heating the electrolyte till 80 °C. Discharging may be performed at constant current or at constant voltage. The constant current discharge may be performed till a pre-defined minimum discharge voltage of minimal zero volt.
It was found that an efficient and effective method and supercapacitor system for storing energy was achieved.
In a further experiment, the supercapacitor system is provided with the (aqueous) electrolyte solution of 30 molal potassium acetate or 40 molal to 80 molal potassium formate mixed with an activated carbon slurry. The activated carbon slurry with the defined electrolyte is pumped through the cell composed with current collectors. The cell is operated as a flow-through system and can be used with and without separator. The separator can be made of a porous electrically insulating material. The advantage of this flow through an inventory-controlled energy storage system is that the storage capacity of the cell can be chosen independent of the size of the electrochemical energy storage system that determines the power of the cell. The power of the cell is thereby determined by the size of the electrochemical cell while the capacity of the electrochemical cell is determined by the volume of the stored activated carbon slurry in the defined electrolyte.
It was found that an efficient and effective method and supercapacitor system for storing energy was achieved.
The present invention is by no means limited to the above described preferred embodiments and/or experiments thereof. The rights sought are defined by the following claims withm the scope of which many modifications can be envisaged. For example, multiple storage tanks 72, 76, 122, 126 can be provided in parallel and/or in series to increase the capacity. Also multiple systems 30, 52, 102 can be placed parallel and/or in series to increase the capacity.
Optionally, in such system a controller switches on and off the subsystems depending on energy supply and demand.
CLAUSES
1. Method for storing energy In a system, comprising the steps of: - providing a supercapacitor system with an electrochemical cell, comprising: — a separator operatively coupled with the electrochemical cell to divide the electrochemical cell into at least two compartments, wherein the at least two compartments comprise an anode compartment and a cathode compartment; — at least two electrodes, wherein the first electrode is operatively coupled with the anode compartment and the second electrode is operatively coupled with the cathode compartment; and — a current and/or voltage source operatively coupled with the at least two electrodes; - providing an electrolyte solution to the electrochemical cell of the supercapacitor system; and - charging the supercapacitor system involving providing a current and/or voltage to the at least two electrodes and separating the electrolyte solution into a solution comprising a cation and a solution comprising an anion, including a terminal voltage which is equal to or more than 1.5 Volt, wherein the electrolyte solution comprises one or more cations selected from the group of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, ammonium. 2. Method according to clause 1, wherein the electrolyte solution comprises one or more anions selected from the group of formate, acetate, proprionate. 3. Method according to any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the terminal voltage is in the range of 1.5 Volt to 6 Volt, preferably the terminal voltage is in the range of 2 Volt to 5 Volt, more preferably the terminal voltage is in the range of 2 Volt to 4 Volt. 4. Method according to any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the molality of the electrolyte solution is in the range of 20 molal to 100 molal, preferably the molality of the electrolyte solution is in the range of 30 molal to 100 molal, more preferably the molality of the electrolyte solution is in the range of 40 molal to 100 molal, and most more preferably the molality of the electrolyte solution is in the range of 40 molal to 80 molal.
5. Method according to any one of the preceding clauses, further comprising the step of transporting the solution comprising the cation and/or the solution comprising the anion from the electrochemical cell to a storage.
6. Method according to clause 5, wherein the step of transporting is performed after the step of charging the supercapacitor system.
7. Method according to any one of the preceding clauses, further comprising the step of storing the solution comprising a cation and/or the solution comprising an anion.
8. Method according to any one of the preceding clauses, further comprising the step of discharging the supercapacitor system involving combining the solution comprising a cation and solution comprising an anion.
9. Method according to clause 8, wherein the step of discharging the supercapacitor system is performed after the step of charging the supercapacitor system.
10. Method according to any one of the preceding clauses, further comprising the step of providing a capacitive slurry to the at least two compartments.
11. Method according to any one of the preceding clauses, further comprising the step of controlling the charging and/or discharging of the supercapacitor system.
12. Method according to any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the step of providing an electrolyte solution to the electrochemical cell of the supercapacitor system comprises the step of continuously providing an ¢lectrolvte solution to the electrochemical cell of the supercapacitor system.
13. Method according to any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the electrolyte solution is an aqueous electrolyte solution.
14. Method according to any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the temperature in the supercapacitor system is in the range of -60 °C to 0 °C, preferably the temperature is in the range of -40 °C to 0 °C, more preferably the temperature is in the range of -20 °C to -5 °C.
15. Method according to any one clauses 1 to 13, wherein the temperature in the supercapacitor system is in the range of 80 °C to 150 °C, preferably the temperature is in the range of 90 °C to 130 °C, more preferably the temperature is in the range of 100 °C to 120 °C.
16. Supercapacitor system for storing energy with an electrochemical cell, comprising:
- a separator operatively coupled with the electrochemical cell to divide the electrochemical cell into at least two compartments, wherein the at least two compartments comprise an anode compartment and a cathode compartment;
- at least two electrodes operatively coupled with the supercapacitor system; and
- a current and/or voltage source operatively coupled with the at least two electrodes, wherein the system is configured for operating the method according to any one of the preceding clauses.
17. Supercapacitor system according to clause 16, further comprising a regulator operatively coupled with the electrochemical cell, configured for regulating the temperature in the supercapacitor system, preferably configured for regulating the temperature in the at least two compartments.
18. Supercapacitor system according to clause 16 or 17, wherein at least one electrode is an activated carbon electrode or graphite electrode.
19. Supercapacitor system according to clause 16, 17, or 18, further comprising a tank configured for storing the solution comprising a cation and/or a tank configured for storing the solution comprising an anion, wherein one tank or both tanks are operatively coupled with the electrochemical cell.
20. Energy storage system comprising a supercapacitor svstem according to any one of the clauses 16 to 19.
21. Building comprising an energy storage system according to clause 20.
Claims (21)
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Citations (5)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| WO2010066025A1 (en) * | 2008-12-12 | 2010-06-17 | Mihai Grumazescu | Electrochemical energy storage and discharge |
| US20140239920A1 (en) * | 2012-03-28 | 2014-08-28 | Sharp Laboratories Of America, Inc. | Supercapacitor with Metal Cyanometallate Anode and Carbonaceous Cathode |
| US20170040640A1 (en) * | 2013-10-03 | 2017-02-09 | Arkema France | Composition including a pentacyclic anion salt and use thereof as a battery electrolyte |
| WO2020108788A2 (en) * | 2018-11-29 | 2020-06-04 | Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena | Redox flow battery for storing electrical energy in underground storage means, and use thereof |
| FR3098214A1 (en) * | 2020-06-12 | 2021-01-08 | Arkema France | MIXTURE OF LITHIUM AND POTASSIUM SALTS, AND ITS USE IN A BATTERY |
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2021
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Patent Citations (5)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| WO2010066025A1 (en) * | 2008-12-12 | 2010-06-17 | Mihai Grumazescu | Electrochemical energy storage and discharge |
| US20140239920A1 (en) * | 2012-03-28 | 2014-08-28 | Sharp Laboratories Of America, Inc. | Supercapacitor with Metal Cyanometallate Anode and Carbonaceous Cathode |
| US20170040640A1 (en) * | 2013-10-03 | 2017-02-09 | Arkema France | Composition including a pentacyclic anion salt and use thereof as a battery electrolyte |
| WO2020108788A2 (en) * | 2018-11-29 | 2020-06-04 | Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena | Redox flow battery for storing electrical energy in underground storage means, and use thereof |
| FR3098214A1 (en) * | 2020-06-12 | 2021-01-08 | Arkema France | MIXTURE OF LITHIUM AND POTASSIUM SALTS, AND ITS USE IN A BATTERY |
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