How do genetics work?

Computers produce so much information that researchers can't properly analyze all the data produced, and the overload can also lead computers to make mistakes. Researchers are increasingly turning to citizen scientists—members of the public who are willing to volunteer—to help them make sense of data when computers can't. This article details a few of the ways you can contribute to genetics research by playing video games.

Humans didn’t need modern technology to figure out that kids tend to look like their parents. But what did humans believe about genetics before we knew about DNA or cells in general? Explore this interactive timeline to see how philosophers and scientists throughout the ages tried to explain how traits are passed from generation to generation.

There’s actually some truth to the idea that you should look at your mother’s father. But genetic research tells us that the full picture is somewhat more complicated. An interesting read on how to use genetics to figure out if you'll go bald (with illustrations).

What is a genome, and how are traits passed from generation to generation? Learn how pea plants helped launch the study of genetics and how the field of genetics research has evolved over time.

The human genome is complex, as identified by the Human Genome Project. This article digs in to genetic disorders, the most common ones, and how they are diagnosed.

The sequence of DNA that we inherit from our parents encodes directions for making our cells and giving us specific traits. Identical twins have the same DNA sequence, so how can one twin end up with a genetic disorder while the other twin does not? Robin Ball explains how the secret lies in X chromosome inactivation.

Dr. Robert Pyatt, director of Sanford Health’s medical genetics lab, talks through real-world genetics scenarios in the Harry Potter series, from the Weasley's red hair and freckles to why Hermione, a witch, could be born to "muggle"—or nonmagical—parents.

These segments of DNA—long molecules made of nucleotides that coil into chromosomes—code instructions for making specific proteins, which correspond to different traits. Approximately 98 to 99% of human DNA is non-coding, with functions beyond protein synthesis.

An exploration of the study of how behaviors and environment affect the way genes work — and how that complicates the nature-versus-nurture debate.

As research continues, it's clear that disease and genetics go hand in hand. Here's a selection of 50 National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) articles providing basic information on genetic, orphan, and rare diseases caused by mutations in DNA sequences, whether inherited from parents or brought about by outside factors.

Learn about the over 20 early human species that belong in our family tree and how the natural selection of certain physical and behavioral traits defined what it means to be human.

These mutations may happen in response to environmental or lifestyle factors, or may be passed down through family members. Genetic testing can be important in catching certain family cancers early and ensuring patients receive the right treatment for their disease.

Designer babies, the end of diseases, genetically modified humans that never age. Outrageous things that used to be science fiction are suddenly becoming reality. As scientists increasingly understand how specific genes cause disease, the possibility of engineering our genes to not only "fix" problems but enhance our natural ability grows.

We're generally taught that chromosomes determine an animal's sex, but it is way more nuanced than that. Watch this 12-minute video to find out how.

Dr. Nancy Segal breaks down how research on twins has revealed just how much our genes influence our behavior and traits—but insists they aren't everything. Catch up on the latest in the nature versus nurture debate.

This podcast interview with a Harvard Medical School professor focused on cancer genetics and prevention discusses the specifics of genetic testing and insights and the challenges of processing the outcomes of the testing and what may be actionable—or not.

This easy-to-understand 13-minute video dives into the wondrous molecule deoxyribonucleic acid – also known as DNA – and explains how it replicates itself in our cells.

The human genome contains over six billion DNA letters, organized into 46 chromosomes inherited from both parents. Genes—sections of DNA—serve as templates for making proteins, and variations in these sequences can affect how our bodies work or respond to the environment.

The insects' fast life cycle and affordability have allowed geneticists to quickly identify which genes are responsible for limbs, eyes, and other body structures by inducing mutations. The same genes may be responsible for different parts of a species' body, such as limb-building genes being responsible for wing pigmentation in butterflies.

A primer on genetic testing, personalized medicine, and the promise of pharmacogenomics–the use of genetics to predict an individual's response to a drug.

Genetic testing examines gene variants to help explain disease symptoms. It explores how genetic differences between individuals can be used to understand risks of developing diseases like Huntington's Disease or passing variants linked to disease onto offspring.

This podcast includes a discussion about how law enforcement can compare DNA samples from a crime scene against voluntarily uploaded DNA on consumer genealogy databases to close cases. Investigators can and have cross-referenced a suspect's crime scene DNA with that of a suspect's relatives who happened to have chosen to upload their genetic information to an open-source genealogy database.

In this video NIDA explores the intriguing similarities between the processes of brain development and computer programming. This analogy helps us understand why toxic environmental factors like drugs, bullying, or lack of sleep strongly affect a teenager's life The information provided by this video can empower your children or students with information they need make better decisions.

After a lab receives a person's sample, the DNA is separated into single strands, which are chemically cut into smaller fragments. The fragments are then fed into an array of variants of known origins, and technicians observe if a person's fragments bind to specific variants.

In this simulation, you will learn how scientists use microarrays to experiment on thousands of genes at the same time. By determining which genes are on or off, users can identify those that contribute to cancer formation.

A 2025 study revealed that fruit flies exhibit unique behavioral preferences, akin to personalities, which could be artificially selected for when breeding to modify behavioral variability. This variability can be adaptive in unpredictable environments.

A combination of carbon dioxide output, skin chemistry, genetic factors, hormones, and clothing choice can make us particularly vulnerable to mosquito bites. Watch how mosquitoes responded to one man in the video versus his wife, a research approach typically conducted with identical and fraternal twins to test mosquito attractiveness.

If the genome is made up of microscopic chromosomes, how do scientists actually sequence it? Here's a 5-minute video explaining one of the most common processes.

Police managed to use consumer DNA test results to close a case 32 years after a killer was believed to have committed at least 12 murders and 50 rapes. Their "smoking gun": They compared a DNA sample from the crime scene to genetic data relatives had shared on an open-source genealogy database. The suspect was caught after investigators explored family trees on this database and connected the dots from over 100 distant relatives who had some percentage of DNA that matched the killer.

Rafal Smigrodzki, a neurologist with a PhD in genetics, first heard of the polygenic risk score offering after reading about it in a 2017 MIT Technology Review feature that focused on the company they eventually used, Genomic Prediction.

These novel tests for multifactorial conditions evaluate the probability of traits like elevated blood pressure, diabetes, or high cholesterol based on what researchers currently know about different gene variants and their links to various traits. The tests are predictive, not definitive, partly because environmental factors influence the expression of genes. What's more, knowledge about cumulative effects from individual genes continues to evolve. The American Society for Reproductive Medicine states that these tests are too unreliable and nascent for clinical use.

Some conditions are autosomal recessive—meaning a person may carry a gene for that condition, but not have symptoms. Cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, and Tay-Sachs disease are examples of autosomal recessive diseases in which a person must inherit two copies of a nonfunctioning gene—one from each parent—to develop disease.

These tests claim to show how at-risk a hypothetical baby would be for genetic syndromes. The newfound industry has prompted ethical and medical debates, with critics questioning their accuracy and highlighting the potential problems behind pursuing the perfect baby.

This interactive human family tree shows the various species that constitute the human evolutionary family. Click on each species or group image to learn more.

Ever wonder how synthetic DNA is made? Discover how GenScript uses innovative technology to synthesize precise, high-quality DNA at a larger scale than ever before.

YourGenome.org furnishes a collection of information on cells and how they work. Every body has trillions of cells, each serving a specific function: making proteins, processing chemicals, and creating energy. Every cell contains a genome, a set of instructions for the cell's function. Brush up on your cells for a better grasp on genetics.

Camouflage—nature's master game of hide-and-seek—is more complex than simply how things look. The disguising process required millions of years of evolution that have programmed how our brains take shortcuts. Watch this video to see examples of camouflage and understand how we process it.

Explore how your immune system's vast network of cells, tissues, and organs coordinate your body's defenses against bacteria, viruses and toxins with this 5-minute TED talk video.

The creation of a single cell produces 120,000 genetic mutations that can lead to cancer. This video investigates how our bodies proofread and autocorrect those mistakes.

Although farmers have long cross-bred crops to obtain plants with specific colors, sizes, and other characteristics, these processes took significant time. Today, genetic modification in agriculture involves scientists altering an organism's DNA for various purposes, including enhancing pathogen resistance, removing allergens, and delaying spoilage.

There are many more genes on Earth today than when microbial life first spawned on the planet about four billion years ago. Many of these newer genes grew from genetic mutations, misprints that slowly drift from the original blueprint via cellular division. If these mutations drift far enough, they can establish a new family of genes, though this process can take well over a million years.

Individual environment and life experiences affect how genes perform in the body, potentially adding methyl groups to DNA that affect their function and turning genes on and off—which may heighten or reduce disease risk.

Growing evidence suggests genetics influence when, how long, and how well one sleeps, meaning insomnia may have a genetic component. While exact insomnia biomarkers have yet to be determined, some genes, including those related to psychiatric disorders, have been implicated.

The Human Genome Project led to the development of techniques later applied to projects in microbial and plant biology, epigenomics, environmental and cancer genomes, and more. In the spirit of the HGP, data from these projects has been made freely available to develop new technologies.