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package ebpf
import (
"bytes"
"encoding/binary"
"errors"
"fmt"
"math"
"os"
"path/filepath"
"runtime"
"strings"
"syscall"
"testing"
"time"
qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
"github.com/cilium/ebpf/asm"
"github.com/cilium/ebpf/btf"
"github.com/cilium/ebpf/internal"
"github.com/cilium/ebpf/internal/sys"
"github.com/cilium/ebpf/internal/testutils"
"github.com/cilium/ebpf/internal/unix"
)
func TestProgramRun(t *testing.T) {
testutils.SkipOnOldKernel(t, "4.8", "XDP program")
pat := []byte{0xDE, 0xAD, 0xBE, 0xEF}
buf := internal.EmptyBPFContext
// r1 : ctx_start
// r1+4: ctx_end
ins := asm.Instructions{
// r2 = *(r1+4)
asm.LoadMem(asm.R2, asm.R1, 4, asm.Word),
// r1 = *(r1+0)
asm.LoadMem(asm.R1, asm.R1, 0, asm.Word),
// r3 = r1
asm.Mov.Reg(asm.R3, asm.R1),
// r3 += len(buf)
asm.Add.Imm(asm.R3, int32(len(buf))),
// if r3 > r2 goto +len(pat)
asm.JGT.Reg(asm.R3, asm.R2, "out"),
}
for i, b := range pat {
ins = append(ins, asm.StoreImm(asm.R1, int16(i), int64(b), asm.Byte))
}
ins = append(ins,
// return 42
asm.LoadImm(asm.R0, 42, asm.DWord).WithSymbol("out"),
asm.Return(),
)
t.Log(ins)
prog, err := NewProgram(&ProgramSpec{
Name: "test",
Type: XDP,
Instructions: ins,
License: "MIT",
})
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
defer prog.Close()
p2, err := prog.Clone()
if err != nil {
t.Fatal("Can't clone program")
}
defer p2.Close()
prog.Close()
prog = p2
ret, out, err := prog.Test(buf)
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
if ret != 42 {
t.Error("Expected return value to be 42, got", ret)
}
if !bytes.Equal(out[:len(pat)], pat) {
t.Errorf("Expected %v, got %v", pat, out)
}
}
func TestProgramRunWithOptions(t *testing.T) {
testutils.SkipOnOldKernel(t, "5.15", "XDP ctx_in/ctx_out")
ins := asm.Instructions{
// Return XDP_ABORTED
asm.LoadImm(asm.R0, 0, asm.DWord),
asm.Return(),
}
prog, err := NewProgram(&ProgramSpec{
Name: "test",
Type: XDP,
Instructions: ins,
License: "MIT",
})
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
defer prog.Close()
buf := internal.EmptyBPFContext
xdp := sys.XdpMd{
Data: 0,
DataEnd: uint32(len(buf)),
}
xdpOut := sys.XdpMd{}
opts := RunOptions{
Data: buf,
Context: xdp,
ContextOut: &xdpOut,
}
ret, err := prog.Run(&opts)
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
if ret != 0 {
t.Error("Expected return value to be 0, got", ret)
}
if xdp != xdpOut {
t.Errorf("Expect xdp (%+v) == xdpOut (%+v)", xdp, xdpOut)
}
}
func TestProgramRunEmptyData(t *testing.T) {
testutils.SkipOnOldKernel(t, "5.13", "sk_lookup BPF_PROG_RUN")
ins := asm.Instructions{
// Return SK_DROP
asm.LoadImm(asm.R0, 0, asm.DWord),
asm.Return(),
}
prog, err := NewProgram(&ProgramSpec{
Name: "test",
Type: SkLookup,
Attac
10000
hType: AttachSkLookup,
Instructions: ins,
License: "MIT",
})
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
defer prog.Close()
opts := RunOptions{
Context: sys.SkLookup{
Family: syscall.AF_INET,
},
}
ret, err := prog.Run(&opts)
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
if ret != 0 {
t.Error("Expected return value to be 0, got", ret)
}
}
func TestProgramBenchmark(t *testing.T) {
prog := mustSocketFilter(t)
ret, duration, err := prog.Benchmark(internal.EmptyBPFContext, 1, nil)
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal("Error from Benchmark:", err)
}
if ret != 2 {
t.Error("Expected return value 2, got", ret)
}
if duration == 0 {
t.Error("Expected non-zero duration")
}
}
func TestProgramTestRunInterrupt(t *testing.T) {
testutils.SkipOnOldKernel(t, "5.0", "EINTR from BPF_PROG_TEST_RUN")
prog := mustSocketFilter(t)
var (
tgid = unix.Getpid()
tidChan = make(chan int, 1)
exit = make(chan struct{})
errs = make(chan error, 1)
timeout = time.After(5 * time.Second)
)
defer close(exit)
go func() {
runtime.LockOSThread()
defer func() {
// Wait for the test to allow us to unlock the OS thread, to
// ensure that we don't send SIGUSR1 to the wrong thread.
<-exit
runtime.UnlockOSThread()
}()
tidChan <- unix.Gettid()
// Block this thread in the BPF syscall, so that we can
// trigger EINTR by sending a signal.
opts := RunOptions{
Data: internal.EmptyBPFContext,
Repeat: math.MaxInt32,
Reset: func() {
// We don't know how long finishing the
// test run would take, so flag that we've seen
// an interruption and abort the goroutine.
close(errs)
runtime.Goexit()
},
}
_, _, err := prog.run(&opts)
errs <- err
}()
tid := <-tidChan
for {
err := unix.Tgkill(tgid, tid, syscall.SIGUSR1)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal("Can't send signal to goroutine thread:", err)
}
select {
case err, ok := <-errs:
if !ok {
return
}
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if err == nil {
t.Fatal("testRun wasn't interrupted")
}
t.Fatal("testRun returned an error:", err)
case <-timeout:
t.Fatal("Timed out trying to interrupt the goroutine")
default:
}
}
}
func TestProgramClose(t *testing.T) {
prog := mustSocketFilter(t)
if err := prog.Close(); err != nil {
t.Fatal("Can't close program:", err)
}
}
func TestProgramPin(t *testing.T) {
prog := mustSocketFilter(t)
c := qt.New(t)
tmp := testutils.TempBPFFS(t)
path := filepath.Join(tmp, "program")
if err := prog.Pin(path); err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
pinned := prog.IsPinned()
c.Assert(pinned, qt.IsTrue)
prog.Close()
prog, err := LoadPinnedProgram(path, nil)
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
defer prog.Close()
if prog.Type() != SocketFilter {
t.Error("Expected pinned program to have type SocketFilter, but got", prog.Type())
}
if haveObjName() == nil {
if prog.name != "test" {
t.Errorf("Expected program to have object name 'test', got '%s'", prog.name)
}
} else {
if prog.name != "program" {
t.Errorf("Expected program to have file name 'program', got '%s'", prog.name)
}
}
if !prog.IsPinned() {
t.Error("Expected IsPinned to be true")
}
}
func TestProgramUnpin(t *testing.T) {
prog := mustSocketFilter(t)
c := qt.New(t)
tmp := testutils.TempBPFFS(t)
path := filepath.Join(tmp, "program")
if err := prog.Pin(path); err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
pinned := prog.IsPinned()
c.Assert(pinned, qt.IsTrue)
if err := prog.Unpin(); err != nil {
t.Fatal("Failed to unpin program:", err)
}
if _, err := os.Stat(path); err == nil {
t.Fatal("Pinned program path still exists after unpinning:", err)
}
}
func TestProgramLoadPinnedWithFlags(t *testing.T) {
// Introduced in commit 6e71b04a8224.
testutils.SkipOnOldKernel(t, "4.14", "file_flags in BPF_OBJ_GET")
prog := mustSocketFilter(t)
tmp := testutils.TempBPFFS(t)
path := filepath.Join(tmp, "program")
if err := prog.Pin(path); err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
prog.Close()
_, err := LoadPinnedProgram(path, &LoadPinOptions{
Flags: math.MaxUint32,
})
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if !errors.Is(err, unix.EINVAL) {
t.Fatal("Invalid flags don't trigger an error:", err)
}
}
func TestProgramVerifierOutputOnError(t *testing.T) {
_, err := NewProgram(&ProgramSpec{
Type: SocketFilter,
Instructions: asm.Instructions{
asm.Return(),
},
License: "MIT",
})
if err == nil {
t.Fatal("Expected program to be invalid")
}
ve, ok := err.(*VerifierError)
if !ok {
t.Fatal("NewProgram does return an unwrapped VerifierError")
}
if !strings.Contains(ve.Error(), "R0 !read_ok") {
t.Logf("%+v", ve)
t.Error("Missing verifier log in error summary")
}
}
func TestProgramKernelVersion(t *testing.T) {
testutils.SkipOnOldKernel(t, "4.20", "KernelVersion")
prog, err := NewProgram(&ProgramSpec{
Type: Kprobe,
Instructions: asm.Instructions{
asm.LoadImm(asm.R0, 0, asm.DWord),
asm.Return(),
},
KernelVersion: 42,
License: "MIT",
})
if err != nil {
t.Fatal("Could not load Kprobe program")
}
defer prog.Close()
}
func TestProgramVerifierOutput(t *testing.T) {
prog, err := NewProgramWithOptions(socketFilterSpec, ProgramOptions{
LogLevel: LogLevelInstruction,
})
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
defer prog.Close()
if prog.VerifierLog == "" {
t.Error("Expected VerifierLog to be present")
}
// Issue 64
_, err = NewProgramWithOptions(&ProgramSpec{
Type: SocketFilter,
Instructions: asm.Instructions{
asm.Mov.Reg(asm.R0, asm.R1),
},
License: "MIT",
}, ProgramOptions{
LogLevel: LogLevelInstruction,
})
if err == nil {
t.Fatal("Expected an error from invalid program")
}
var ve *internal.VerifierError
if
10000
!errors.As(err, &ve) {
t.Error("Error is not a VerifierError")
}
}
// Test all scenarios where the VerifierError.Truncated flag is expected to be
// true, marked with an x. LL means ProgramOption.LogLevel.
//
// | | Valid | Invalid |
// |------|-------|---------|
// | LL=0 | | x |
// | LL>0 | x | x |
func TestProgramVerifierLogTruncated(t *testing.T) {
// Make the buffer intentionally small to coerce ENOSPC.
// 128 bytes is the smallest the kernel will accept.
logSize := 128
check := func(t *testing.T, err error) {
if err == nil {
t.Fatal("Expected an error")
}
var ve *internal.VerifierError
if !errors.As(err, &ve) {
t.Fatal("Error is not a VerifierError")
}
if !ve.Truncated {
t.Errorf("VerifierError is not truncated: %+v", ve)
}
}
// Generate a base program of sufficient size whose verifier log does not fit
// a 128-byte buffer. This should always result in ENOSPC, setting the
// VerifierError.Truncated flag.
base := func() (out asm.Instructions) {
for i := 0; i < 32; i++ {
out = append(out, asm.Mov.Reg(asm.R0, asm.R1))
}
return
}()
invalid := func() (out asm.Instructions) {
out = base
// Touch R10 (read-only frame pointer) to reliably force a verifier error.
out = append(out, asm.Mov.Reg(asm.R10, asm.R0))
out = append(out, asm.Return())
return
}()
valid := func() (out asm.Instructions) {
out = base
out = append(out, asm.Return())
return
}()
// Start out with testing against the invalid program.
spec := &ProgramSpec{
Type: SocketFilter,
License: "MIT",
Instructions: invalid,
}
// Set an undersized log buffer without explicitly requesting a verifier log
// for an invalid program.
_, err := NewProgramWithOptions(spec, ProgramOptions{LogSize: logSize})
check(t, err)
// Explicitly request a verifier log for an invalid program.
_, err = NewProgramWithOptions(spec, ProgramOptions{
LogSize: logSize,
LogLevel: LogLevelInstruction,
})
check(t, err)
// Run tests against a valid program from here on out.
spec.Instructions = valid
// Don't request a verifier log, only set LogSize. Expect the valid program to
// be created without errors.
prog, err := NewProgramWithOptions(spec, ProgramOptions{
LogSize: logSize,
})
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
prog.Close()
// Explicitly request verifier log for a valid program. If a log is requested
// and the buffer is too small, ENOSPC occurs even for valid programs.
_, err = NewProgramWithOptions(spec, ProgramOptions{
LogSize: logSize,
LogLevel: LogLevelInstruction,
})
check(t, err)
}
func TestProgramWithUnsatisfiedMap(t *testing.T) {
coll, err := LoadCollectionSpec("testdata/loader-el.elf")
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
// The program will have at least one map reference.
progSpec := coll.Programs["xdp_prog"]
progSpec.ByteOrder = nil
_, err = NewProgram(progSpec)
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if !errors.Is(err, asm.ErrUnsatisfiedMapReference) {
t.Fatal("Expected an error wrapping asm.ErrUnsatisfiedMapReference, got", err)
}
t.Log(err)
}
func TestProgramName(t *testing.T) {
if err := haveObjName(); err != nil {
t.Skip(err)
}
prog := mustSocketFilter(t)
var info sys.ProgInfo
if err := sys.ObjInfo(prog.fd, &info); err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
if name := unix.ByteSliceToString(info.Name[:]); name != "test" {
t.Errorf("Name is not test, got '%s'", name)
}
}
func TestSanitizeName(t *testing.T) {
for input, want := range map[string]string{
"test": "test",
"t-est": "test",
"t_est": "t_est",
"hörnchen": "hrnchen",
} {
if have := SanitizeName(input, -1); have != want {
t.Errorf("Wanted '%s' got '%s'", want, have)
}
}
}
func TestProgramCloneNil(t *testing.T) {
p, err := (*Program)(nil).Clone()
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
if p != nil {
t.Fatal("Cloning a nil Program doesn't return nil")
}
}
func TestProgramMarshaling(t *testing.T) {
const idx = uint32(0)
arr := createProgramArray(t)
defer arr.Close()
prog := mustSocketFilter(t)
if err := arr.Put(idx, prog); err != nil {
t.Fatal("Can't put program:", err)
}
if err := arr.Lookup(idx, Program{}); err == nil {
t.Fatal("Lookup accepts non-pointer Program")
}
var prog2 *Program
defer prog2.Close()
if err := arr.Lookup(idx, prog2); err == nil {
t.Fatal("Get accepts *Program")
}
testutils.SkipOnOldKernel(t, "4.12", "lookup for ProgramArray")
if err := arr.Lookup(idx, &prog2); err != nil {
t.Fatal("Can't unmarshal program:", err)
}
defer prog2.Close()
if prog2 == nil {
t.Fatal("Unmarshalling set program to nil")
}
}
func TestProgramFromFD(t *testing.T) {
prog := mustSocketFilter(t)
// If you're thinking about copying this, don't. Use
// Clone() instead.
prog2, err := NewProgramFromFD(dupFD(t, prog.FD()))
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
defer prog2.Close()
// Name and type are supposed to be copied from program info.
if haveObjName() == nil && prog2.name != "test" {
t.Errorf("Expected program to have name test, got '%s'", prog2.name)
}
if prog2.typ != SocketFilter {
t.Errorf("Expected program to have type SocketFilter, got '%s'", prog2.typ)
}
}
func TestHaveProgTestRun(t *testing.T) {
testutils.CheckFeatureTest(t, haveProgRun)
}
func TestProgramGetNextID(t *testing.T) {
testutils.SkipOnOldKernel(t, "4.13", "bpf_prog_get_next_id")
// Ensure there is at least one program loaded
_ = mustSocketFilter(t)
// As there can be multiple eBPF programs, we loop over all of them and
// make sure, the IDs increase and the last call will return ErrNotExist
last := ProgramID(0)
for {
next, err := ProgramGetNextID(last)
if errors.Is(err, os.ErrNotExist) {
if last == 0 {
t.Fatal("Got ErrNotExist on the first iteration")
}
break
}
if err != nil {
t.Fatal("Unexpected error:", err)
}
if next <= last {
t.Fatalf("Expected next ID (%d) to be higher than the last ID (%d)", next, last)
}
last = next
}
}
func TestNewProgramFromID(t *testing.T) {
prog := mustSocketFilter(t)
info, err := prog.Info()
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal("Could not get program info:", err)
}
id, ok := info.ID()
if !ok {
t.Skip("Program ID not supported")
}
prog2, err := NewProgramFromID(id)
if err != nil {
t.Fatalf("Can't get FD for program ID %d: %v", id, err)
}
prog2.Close()
// As there can be multiple programs, we use max(uint32) as ProgramID to trigger an expected error.
_, err = NewProgramFromID(ProgramID(math.MaxUint32))
if !errors.Is(err, os.ErrNotExist) {
t.Fatal("Expected ErrNotExist, got:", err)
}
}
func TestProgramRejectIncorrectByteOrder(t *testing.T) {
spec := socketFilterSpec.Copy()
spec.ByteOrder = binary.BigEndian
if internal.NativeEndian == binary.BigEndian {
spec.ByteOrder = binary.LittleEndian
}
_, err := NewProgram(spec)
if err == nil {
t.Error("Incorrect ByteOrder should be rejected at load time")
}
}
func TestProgramSpecTag(t *testing.T) {
arr := createArray(t)
defer arr.Close()
spec := &ProgramSpec{
Type: SocketFilter,
Instructions: asm.Instructions{
asm.LoadImm(asm.R0, -1, asm.DWord),
asm.LoadMapPtr(asm.R1, arr.FD()),
asm.Mov.Imm32(asm.R0, 0),
asm.Return(),
},
License: "MIT",
}
prog, err := NewProgram(spec)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
defer prog.Close()
info, err := prog.Info()
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
tag, err := spec.Tag()
if err != nil {
t.Fatal("Can't calculate tag:", err)
}
if tag != info.Tag {
t.Errorf("Calculated tag %s doesn't match kernel tag %s", tag, info.Tag)
}
}
func TestProgramAttachToKernel(t *testing.T) {
// See https://github.com/torvalds/linux/commit/290248a5b7d829871b3ea3c62578613a580a1744
testutils.SkipOnOldKernel(t, "5.5", "attach_btf_id")
haveTestmod := haveTestmod(t)
tests := []struct {
attachTo string
programType ProgramType
attachType AttachType
flags uint32
}{
{
attachTo: "task_getpgid",
programType: LSM,
attachType: AttachLSMMac,
},
{
attachTo: "inet_dgram_connect",
programType: Tracing,
attachType: AttachTraceFEntry,
},
{
attachTo: "inet_dgram_connect",
programType: Tracing,
attachType: AttachTraceFExit,
},
{
attachTo: "bpf_modify_return_test",
programType: Tracing,
attachType: AttachModifyReturn,
},
{
attachTo: "kfree_skb",
programType: Tracing,
attachType: AttachTraceRawTp,
},
{
attachTo: "bpf_testmod_test_read",
programType: Tracing,
attachType: AttachTraceFEntry,
},
{
attachTo: "bpf_testmod_test_read",
programType: Tracing,
attachType: AttachTraceFExit,
},
{
attachTo: "bpf_testmod_test_read",
programType: Tracing,
attachType: AttachModifyReturn,
},
{
attachTo: "bpf_testmod_test_read",
programType: Tracing,
attachType: AttachTraceRawTp,
},
}
for _, test := range tests {
name := fmt.Sprintf("%s:%s", test.attachType, test.attachTo)
t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
if strings.HasPrefix(test.attachTo, "bpf_testmod_") && !haveTestmod {
t.Skip("bpf_testmod not loaded")
}
prog, err := NewProgram(&ProgramSpec{
AttachTo: test.attachTo,
AttachType: test.attachType,
Instructions: asm.Instructions{
asm.LoadImm(asm.R0, 0, asm.DWord),
asm.Return(),
},
License: "GPL",
Type: test.programType,
Flags: test.flags,
})
if err != nil {
t.Fatal("Can't load program:", err)
}
prog.Close()
})
}
}
func TestProgramKernelTypes(t *testing.T) {
if _, err := os.Stat("/sys/kernel/btf/vmlinux"); os.IsNotExist(err) {
t.Skip("/sys/kernel/btf/vmlinux not present")
}
btfSpec, err := btf.LoadSpec("/sys/kernel/btf/vmlinux")
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
prog, err := NewProgramWithOptions(&ProgramSpec{
Type: Tracing,
AttachType: AttachTraceIter,
AttachTo: "bpf_map",
Instructions: asm.Instructions{
asm.Mov.Imm(asm.R0, 0),
asm.Return(),
},
License: "MIT",
}, ProgramOptions{
KernelTypes: btfSpec,
})
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal("NewProgram with Target:", err)
}
prog.Close()
}
func TestProgramBindMap(t *testing.T) {
testutils.SkipOnOldKernel(t, "5.10", "BPF_PROG_BIND_MAP")
arr, err := NewMap(&MapSpec{
Type: Array,
KeySize: 4,
ValueSize: 4,
MaxEntries: 1,
})
if err != nil {
t.Errorf("Failed to load map: %v", err)
}
defer arr.Close()
prog := mustSocketFilter(t)
// The attached map does not contain BTF information. So
// the metadata part of the program will be empty. This
// test just makes sure that we can bind a map to a program.
if err := prog.BindMap(arr); err != nil {
t.Errorf("Failed to bind map to program: %v", err)
}
}
func TestProgramInstructions(t *testing.T) {
name := "test_prog"
spec := &ProgramSpec{
Type: SocketFilter,
Name: name,
Instructions: asm.Instructions{
asm.LoadImm(asm.R0, -1, asm.DWord).WithSymbol(name),
asm.Return(),
},
License: "MIT",
}
prog, err := NewProgram(spec)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
defer prog.Close()
pi, err := prog.Info()
testutils.SkipIfNotSupported(t, err)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
insns, err := pi.Instructions()
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
tag, err := spec.Tag()
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
tagXlated, err := insns.Tag(internal.NativeEndian)
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
if tag != tagXlated {
t.Fatalf("tag %s differs from xlated instructions tag %s", tag, tagXlated)
}
}
func createProgramArray(t *testing.T) *Map {
t.Helper()
arr, err := NewMap(&MapSpec{
Type: ProgramArray,
KeySize: 4,
ValueSize: 4,
MaxEntries: 1,
})
if err != nil {
t.Fatal(err)
}
return arr
}
var socketFilterSpec = &ProgramSpec{
Name: "test",
Type: SocketFilter,
Instructions: asm.Instructions{
asm.LoadImm(asm.R0, 2, asm.DWord),
asm.Return(),
},
License: "MIT",
}
func mustSocketFilter(tb testing.TB) *Program {
tb.Helper()
prog, err := NewProgram(socketFilterSpec)
if err != nil {
tb.Fatal(err)
}
tb.Cleanup(func() { prog.Close() })
return prog
}
// Print the full verifier log when loading a program fails.
func ExampleVerifierError_retrieveFullLog() {
_, err := NewProgram(&ProgramSpec{
Type: SocketFilter,
Instructions: asm.Instructions{
asm.LoadImm(asm.R0, 0, asm.DWord),
// Missing Return
},
License: "MIT",
})
var ve *VerifierError
if errors.As(err, &ve) {
// Using %+v will print the whole verifier error, not just the last
// few lines.
fmt.Printf("Verifier error: %+v\n", ve)
}
}
// VerifierLog understands a variety of formatting flags.
func ExampleVerifierError() {
err := internal.ErrorWithLog(
"catastrophe",
syscall.ENOSPC,
[]byte("first\nsecond\nthird"),
false,
)
fmt.Printf("With %%s: %s\n", err)
err.Truncated = true
fmt.Printf("With %%v and a truncated log: %v\n", err)
fmt.Printf("All log lines: %+v\n", err)